The Asymmetric Relationship Between Encoding and Retrieval in Implicit and Explicit Memory

Neural Correlates of Perceptual/Semantic Encoding and Implicit/Explicit Retrieval: An fMRI Study T. Park (tpark@chonnam.ac.kr) Department of Psychology, Chonnam National University Kwangju 500-757, Republic of Korea The important distinction between implicit and explicit memory tests is based on intentional effort and conscious recollection experience during retrieval process (Schacter, 1987), which have been suggested to be associated with increased activity in prefrontal and medial temporal regions, respectively (Schacter & Buckner, 1998). The present study investigated brain areas activated during tasks involving implicit and explicit memory retrieval, and examined neural correlates of conscious recollection and intentional effort during memory retrieval. Methods Whole-brain functional MRI was used to examine 8 subjects during retrieval in a block-designed fMRI experiment (Fig. 1). Two incidental study conditions were manipulated: Semantic and perceptual word encoding conditions. This manipulation of level of processing (LoP) was expected to yield two retrieval conditions that differed with regard to intentional retrieval effort and successful conscious recollection: Semantic encoding yielding low level of retrieval effort with high level of retrieval success and perceptual encoding yielding high level of effort with low level of retrieval success. After studying, word fragment completion (WFC) task was presented and then cued recall (CR) task was presented with word fragment cues. PER 30S SEM 30S 30S PER 30S 30S UNS PER SEM 30S SEM 30S 30S 30S UNS PER SEM 30S 30S 30S 30S 30S 30S 30S 30S 30S Fig. 1. A schematic illustration of study (above) and retrieval (below) paradigm. Critical study blocks (Semantic Encoding and Perceptual Encoding) were 30-s long separated by 30-s blocks of fixation (+). Critical retrieval blocks (Unstudied, Perceptually studied, Semantically studied) were also 30-s long separated by 30-s blocks of fixation in each of WFC and CR tasks. Results During explicit retrieval (CR) of the semantically encoded words, right inferior frontal regions (Brodman Areas 45, 47) were activated but right anterior frontal regions (BA 10) were deactivated. These results suggest different roles of different prefrontal regions during explicit (episodic) memory retrieval: BA 45/47 involved in conscious recollection and BA 10 in intentional effort (McIntosh et al., 1997). Also, parahippocampal gyrus was activated during explicit retrieval of the semantically encoded words, and this result supports the idea that medial temporal lobe is a neural correlate of conscious retrieval success. During implicit retrieval (WFC), occipital lobe (BA 17, 18 including fusiform gyrus) showed reduced activation when word fragments were primed, and this result supports the view that posterior areas are neural correlates of perceptual priming. Unexpectedly, right parahippocampal gyrus showed increased activation during implicit retrieval of the semantically encoded words. This result suggests that LoP effects which were often observed in studies of implicit memory retrieval could be the result of involuntary recollection (explicit contamination). Acknowledgements This research was supported as a Brain Neuroinformatics Research Program sponsored by Korean Ministry of Science and Technology. References McIntosh, A. R., Nyberg, L., Bookstein, F. L., & Tulving, E. (1997). Differential functional connectivity of prefrontal and medial temporal cortices during episodic memory retrieval. Human Brain Mapping, 5, 323-327. Schacter, D. L. (1987). Implicit memory: History and current status. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 501-518. Schacter, D. L., & Buckner, R. L. (1998). On the relations among priming, conscious recollection, and intentional retrieval: Evidence from neuroimaging research. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 70, 284-303.

Differences of relevance in implicit and explicit memory tests: An ERP study

Explicit and implicit memory in the elderly: Evidence for double dissociation involving medial temporal- and frontal-lobe functions.

Implicit and explicit associative memory in patients with schizophrenia

Implicit tests of memory have become very popular. Age-related differences between young and older children typically observed on explicit memory tests are largely reduced with implicit memory testings. Yet to draw conclusions about the developmental invariance of priming from findings on one single type of implicit memory test seems problematic because of dissociations observed between different implicit tests. These dissociations have led researchers to classify memory tasks according to the forms of information they access or the type of processing they require. Developmental research has extensively demonstrated that existing semantic knowledge is a crucial factor in accounting for age-related differences in explicit memory performance. The conditions should be studied in which age-related differences can be observed as well as what kind of conceptual knowledge and conceptual processes are responsible for the differences.

Implicit and explicit memory bias in anxiety: A conceptual replication

Four models were compared on repeated explicit memory (fragment cued recall) or implicit memory (fragment completion) tasks (Hayman & Tulving, 1989a). In the experiments, when given explicit instructions to complete fragments with words from a just-studied list-the explicit condition-people showed a dependence relation between the first and the second fragment targeted at the same word. However, when subjects were just told to complete the (primed) fragments-the implicit condition-stochastic independence between the two fragments resulted. Three distributed models-CHARM, a competitive-learning model, and a back-propagation model produced dependence, as in the explicit memory test. In contrast, a separate-trace model, MINERVA, showed independence, as in the implicit task. It was concluded that explicit memory is based on a highly interactive network that glues or binds together the features within the items, as do the first three models. The binding accounts for the dependence relation. Implicit memory appears to be based, instead, on separate non interacting traces.

Although patients with Alzheimer dementia (AD) have impaired explicit memory, more automatic, implicit aspects of learning and memory may be relatively preserved. However, neuropsychological tests for the assessment of implicit memory are lacking. This study examines a newly developed test, the Implicit Memory Test, in 28 patients with severe AD (mini-mental state examination 5 to 12) and 22 cognitively unimpaired matched controls (mini-mental state examination 25 to 29). The Implicit Memory Test consists of visually presented word (stem-completion) and picture (fragmented picture identification) subtests, each comprising 3 learning trials and a delayed test. Explicit memory was also assessed, using the verbal paired-associate learning subtest from the Wechsler Memory Scale and the Visual Association Test. Patients with AD obtained a floor performance on both explicit memory tests, whereas a significant learning curve was found for both the stem-completion and the fragmented pictures subtests of the Implicit Memory Test. Delayed testing on the fragmented pictures subtest showed a preserved performance that may have been mediated by implicit learning. Delayed performance on the stem-completion subtest, however, showed clear memory decay that suggests contamination by explicit memory function, at least in the controls. These findings extend the earlier results on word-stem completion and fragmented picture identification in patients with mild-to-moderate AD and indicate that residual learning capacity can be assessed in severe AD.

Background and objectives: Implicit (unconscious) and explicit (conscious) memory associations with drugs have been examined primarily using verbal cues. However, drug seeking, drug use behaviors, and relapse in chronic cocaine and other drug users are frequently triggered by viewing substance-related visual cues in the environment. We thus examined implicit and explicit memory for drug picture cues to understand the relative extent to which conscious and unconscious memory facilitation of visual drug cues occurs during cocaine dependence. Methods: Memory for drug-related and neutral picture cues was assessed in 14 inpatient cocaine-dependent polydrug users and a comparison group of 21 young adults with limited drug experience (n = 35). Participants completed picture cue exposure, free recall and recognition tasks to assess explicit memory, and a repetition priming task to assess implicit memory. Results: Drug cues, compared to neutral cues, were better explicitly recalled and implicitly primed, and especially so in the cocaine group. In contrast, neutral cues were better explicitly recognized, and especially in the control group. Conclusion: Certain forms of explicit and implicit memory for drug cues were enhanced in cocaine users compared to controls when memory was tested a short time following cue exposure. Enhanced unconscious memory processing of drug cues in chronic cocaine users may be a behavioral manifestation of heightened drug cue salience that supports drug seeking and taking. There may be value in expanding intervention techniques to utilize cocaine users’ implicit memory system.

Using the Process Dissociation Procedure: The Meaning and Value of Comparable Base Rates

The Concreteness Effect in Implicit and Explicit Memory Tests

Implicit and explicit memory: a functional dissociation in persons with Down syndrome

Retrieval practice with particular items in memory may result in decreased recall of different, semantically related, items. This retrieval-induced forgetting effect has been demonstrated in studies using explicit memory tests. Anderson and Spellman (1995) have attributed retrieval-induced forgetting to inhibitory mechanisms. This hypothesis predicts similar effects in implicit memory tasks. In our first experiment, using Anderson and Spellman's original paradigm, retrieval-induced forgetting was found using an explicit memory test with independent extralist retrieval cues. In our second experiment, using the same materials, retrieval-induced forgetting was also found using an implicit memory test with independent extralist retrieval cues, but only for participants who were aware of the relationship between the study and practice phase on the one hand, and the test phase of the experiment on the other. Thus, test awareness seems to mediate retrieval-induced forgetting in implicit memory tasks.

High doses of opioid associated with low doses of hypnotic is a popular anaesthetic technique since the use of remifentanil has become widespread. This type of anaesthesia could result in a higher incidence of implicit memory. Ten patients were anaesthetised with a target-controlled infusion of remifentanil (target concentration of 8 ng mL(-1)) combined with a target-controlled infusion of propofol with progressive stepwise increases until loss of consciousness was reached. A tape containing 20 words was then played to the patients. Bispectral index (BIS, Aspect Medical Systems, Newton, MA, USA) was continuously monitored during the whole study period. Implicit and explicit memories were tested between 2 and 4 h after recovery. Loss of consciousness was obtained with a mean calculated propofol plasma concentration of 1.3 +/- 0.4 microg mL(-1). At this low hypnotic concentration no implicit or explicit memory was found in the three postoperative memory tests. Median (range) BIS value during word presentation was 93 (80-98). In our group of young American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) I/II patients, no explicit or implicit memory was found when the calculated concentration of propofol combined with a high concentration of remifentanil was maintained at the level associated with loss of consciousness with high BIS values.

Perceptual identification task points to continuity between implicit memory and recall