The Beat

The objective of this paper is to help state agencies better understand the impact of electric and hybrid vehicles on the Highway Trust Fund and to develop a method for estimating proper annual registration fees for electric vehicles (EVs). In this study, a comprehensive literature review was conducted to summarize the background on electric and hybrid vehicles, current national and state policies and incentives, the trend of EV market in the U.S., and registration fees on electric and hybrid vehicles. As electric and hybrid vehicles do not contribute to fuel excise tax revenue, to compensate the lost tax revenues, some states charge additional annual registration fees to EV owners. To help the legislators determine the proper annual fees, a method was developed to assess the additional registration fees for EVs and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) in Alabama. The collected data include number of registered electric and hybrid vehicles, fuel tax per gallon, and annual average mileage traveled by electric and hybrid vehicles in Alabama. The results of this study served as a key reference in the Rebuild Alabama Act that proposed an annual registration fee of $200 and $100 for EVs and PHEVs, respectively, which is effective since January 2020. The method in this study can be applied to other states for developing policies on registration fees for EVs and PHEVs to offset the fuel excise tax revenue loss.

Electric and hybrid vehicles, which involve road accidents and fires, present unique risks associated with high voltage systems. These hazards are divided into three separate categories: chemical, electrical and thermal. The possible effects may vary, but are not limited to the size, configuration, and chemical composition of the battery. Operational and rescue units of Ukraine in case of road accidents are guided by the order of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine and methodological recommendations. These documents cover actions during fires and emergencies in electric vehicles are quite concise and need to be significantly expanded and provide the necessary recommendations to prevent injuries to personnel during rescue operations and firefighting in this type of vehicle. The article comparative analysis of normative documents, methods and actions of rescue units of Ukraine with recommendations and methods of other states, in case of fires on hybrid and electric vehicles, identification of shortcomings in order to further provide recommendations for improving existing management documents, taking into account experience and practice abroad. According to the results of the analysis, the guidelines of the Rescue Service of Ukraine do not contain a clear list of exercises that can coordinate the actions of rescuers and increase their personal safety with the following sequence of actions: car identification, immobilization, disconnection of power sources, rescue. Actions on extinguishing cars are very briefly reviewed, it is not clear for what reasons the use of air-mechanical foam is prohibited. Methods of extinguishing ordinary cars with internal combustion engines on gasoline and diesel, and recommendations for the use of fire extinguishers during firefighting on these vehicles in the regulations are not available at all. electric and hybrid vehicles need significant revision and improvement, taking into account the experience of other countries in the field of rescue and firefighting.

This paper contains a comparison of air pollutant emissions of different vehicle types and a presentation of the issue of assessing the environmental impact of hybrid, conventional, and electric vehicles in terms of the changing electricity production sources in Poland over time. The research method used in this paper for hybrid and conventional vehicles was on-road testing of air pollutant emissions using the SEMTECH DS analyzer. Air pollutant emissions from electric vehicles were determined based on the authors’ analytical method involving air pollutant emission factors published annually in Poland by the National Centre for Emissions Management (KOBiZE). Measurements of on-road air pollutant emissions for hybrid and conventional vehicles were compared with electric vehicle emissions; however, the electric vehicle emissions covered the area of electricity production. The hybrid vehicle emissions recorded in on-road tests have been corrected for the emissions that arise from the production of the electricity consumed by the hybrid vehicle. The recovery phenomenon was not analyzed. The aim of this paper is to compare air pollutant emissions of electric vehicles with those of hybrid and conventional vehicles, considering the energy transition that has taken place in Poland in the last decade.

Today, increasing air pollution problem, climate change, rapid depletion of oil reserves and their being expensive cause an increase in environmentally friendly, efficient and sustainable work in the transportation sector. For this reason, efforts are being made to expand the use of electric and hybrid vehicles in the transportation sector. In this study, the efficiency and 〖CO〗_2 emission effects provided by the electric motor types used compared to other vehicle engines are estimated by examining the electric and hybrid vehicles sold in our country as well as the historical development, structure and working principle of electric and hybrid vehicles. Preferred engines in electric and hybrid vehicles are compared in terms of efficiency, cost, power density and reliability. Brushless DC motors are determined to be better in terms of efficiency and performance, but costlier. Electric vehicles with permanent magnet synchronous motors are considered to be optimum in terms of efficiency and cost. 〖CO〗_2 emission values of engine types used in vehicles using internal combustion engines electric and hybrid vehicles are compared using basic statistical estimation methods. As a result of the comparison, it is expected that the 〖CO〗_2 emission rate will decrease by 2% or more in the future.

In recent years, electric and hybrid vehicles have taken more and more attention due to their apparent advantages in saving fuel resources and reducing harmful emissions into the environment. Even though electric vehicles can solve the ecological problem, their operation is faced with a number of inconveniences associated with a limited driving distance from a single charge due to limited storage of energy from an independent power source and a lack of the required service and repair infrastructure. In hybrid and electric vehicles one of the main parameters is the curb weight, which affects energy consumption, vehicle speed, stability, controllability and maneuverability. In this regard, leading car manufacturers use parts with a low specific weight (non-metallic, aluminum alloys, etc.) in the design and also exclude some units from the design. Due to these technical solutions, the vehicle's operating is improved. One of the groups of parameters to be defined when designing a new electric vehicle is the parameters relating to the electric motor. The purpose of the article is determination of the mechanical characteristics of a two-rotor electric motor during magnetic flux control and assessment of the possibility of organizing the drive of the drive wheels of the vehicle. The electric motor has two mechanically independent outputs. For the study, an electrical equivalent diagram has been developed for the given two-rotor electric motor. A simulation model of the equivalent diagram has been built. Simulating the interaction processes of the rotors with the stator made it possible to obtain data for building the mechanical characteristics for each output of the electric motor. Analysis and processing of the mechanical characteristics data of the electric motors showed the conformity and the range of changes in the torque on each of the rotors when changing their slip and revolution, which are required when building algorithms for the operation of electric motor control systems as part of drives for various purposes. Analysis of the simulation results made it possible to assess the possibility of using the considered two-rotor electric motor for the drive of drive wheels in an electric and hybrid wheeled vehicle.

In automotive traction applications the interior permanent magnet synchronous motor (IPMSM) is preferentially chosen as traction drive due to its high torque and power densities. In drive trains of electrical vehicles (EV) and most hybrid electrical vehicles (HEV) the traction motor is operated in torque controlled mode. In a field-oriented control scheme an operation point selection strategy is required to choose appropriate current setpoints to generate the requested torque with high precision and optimal efficiency. In this paper the potential to improve the efficiency by operating a motor with minimum overall losses instead of minimum current per torque is investigated. The interaction between the motors loss characteristic, the impact of the voltage limit and the relevance of operation points for vehicle operation is explored theoretically and based on loss measurements. It is shown, that the losses can potentially be reduced at medium to high motor speeds with moderate torque requirements. This operation range corresponds to traveling with constant medium to high speed and slight acceleration and deceleration in electric vehicles. As well most operation points of the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) and the Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedure (WLTP) are in that operation range due to the moderate accelerations and decelerations in both driving cycles.

New electrified powertrains are increasingly entering the vehicular fleet and therefore their energy response to traffic management measures that have been designed for conventional vehicles is under consideration. The present paper examines the effect of traffic signals' adjustment on the energy consumption and CO <sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sub> emissions of various types of modern powertrains, such as hybrids and electric vehicles, estimating the effect of signal settings on vehicular energy consumption. This examination follows a modeling approach, where vehicular speed profiles for various signal setting scenarios were evaluated in energy terms, with the use of detailed instantaneous powertrain models of hybrid and electric vehicles. The evaluation reveals the formed trends on the energy performance of modern vehicles when an adjustment of traffic signal settings is applied to traffic. The recognition of these trends is essential as traffic streams will be increasingly penetrated by new electrified powertrains.

The transport sector in Nigeria is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions and urban air pollution. This study investigates the contrasting trends in emissions from electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid-electric vehicles (HEV) and fossil fuel-powered vehicles in Nigeria. The objective of this paper is to explore the role of electric and hybrid vehicles as sustainable transportation options that contribute to emission reduction. It examines the environmental, economic, and technological implications of adopting these vehicles, with a specific focus on Nigeria. It also evaluates global best practices and how they can inform domestic policies and infrastructure development. Using recent data from the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), International Energy Agency (IEA) and the World Bank, scholarly articles and industry sources, the study finds that emissions from EVs are declining, driven by increased adoption, government incentives, and rising public awareness of environmental issues and climate change mitigation. In contrast, emissions from fossil fuel vehicles continue to rise due to rapid growth in vehicle ownership, the prevalence of aging and inefficient vehicles, substandard fuel quality, and inadequate public transport infrastructure. The study concludes that while Nigeria’s efforts to promote EVs are yielding positive results, these gains risk being undermined unless systemic challenges in the broader transport sector are addressed. The paper recommends a comprehensive policy approach, including stronger EV incentives, improved fuel quality regulations, modern public transport investment and stricter emissions standards, to achieve sustained reductions in transport-related emissions. These findings contribute to the discourse on sustainable transportation pathways in developing economies.

Scenarios are described which have been generated in support of the Hybrid Vehicle Potential Assessment Task under the JPL Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Systems Research and Development Project. The primary function of the scenario generation is to develop a set of consistent and credible forecasts required to estimate the potential impact of hybrid vehicles on future petroleum consumption in the USA, given a set of specific electric, hybrid and conventional vehicle designs. The forecasts are limited to the next 32 years (1978 to 2010. The four major areas of concern are: population and vehicle fleet size; travel patterns and vehicle fleet mix; conventional vehicle technology (Otto baseline); battery technology; and prices. The forecasts have been generated to reflect two baseline scenarios, a Petroleum Conservation Scenario (Scenario A) and an Energy Conservation Scenario (Scenario B). The primary assumption in Scenario A is higher gasoline prices than in Scenario B. This should result in less travel per car and an increased demand for smaller and more fuel efficient cars (compared to Scenario B). In Scenario B the primary assumption is higher prices on cars (new as well as used) than in Scenario A. This should lead to less cars (compared to Scenario A) and a shift to other modes of transportation.

Thanks to technological advances and environmental standards, as well as changing usage patterns, road vehicles are constantly developing. Electric and hybrid vehicles are playing an increasingly important role in today’s road transport. The most significant changes are probably in the powertrain of vehicles. The efficiency of internal combustion engines increases while their emissions continue to decline. In addition, high performance electric motors, batteries and even fuel cells play an increasingly important role in hybrid and electric vehicles. In this publication, we review the drive systems of current modern vehicles and the types and characteristics of their major components. We also review the available models and computer programs for their simulation, focusing mainly on MATLAB/Simulink applications. Based on this, we can develop our own models and simulation programs which will help us to perform different driving dynamics simulations and to compare the performance, dynamic and energetic characteristics of these powertrains and their components to each other.

The production of energy for traction in classical vehicles is performed by petrol or oil combustion. The consequence is green gas production. Paper deals with different power trains of electric hybrid and electric vehicles. Electric hybrid vehicles diminish the fuel consumption by giving to the internal combustion engine (ICE) better working conditions with respect to ICE revolutions and demanded power. The kinetic braking energy recovery is an important feature too. Electric vehicles are usually called “green vehicles”. It is true that they do not produce green gas on places where they are driving but it is also true that their traction energy has to be produced with another energy technology used in electric plants. The efficiency of the vehicle powertrain is important. The energy for transportation by vehicles in the world is great. Therefore it is very important what energy production technology for this traction purposes will be used.

The US Department of Energy (DOE) Site Operator Program was initially established to meet the requirements of the Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 1976. The Program has since evolved in response to new legislation and interests. The goals of the Site Operator Program include the field evaluation of electric vehicles (EVs) in real-world applications and environments; the advancement of electric vehicle technologies; the development of infrastructure elements necessary to support significant electric vehicle use; and increasing the awareness and acceptance of EVs by the public. The Site Operator Program currently consists of eleven participants under contract and two other organizations that have data-sharing agreements with the Program (Table ES-1). Several national organizations have joined DOE to further the introduction and awareness of electric vehicles, including: (1) EVAmerica (a utility program) and DOE conduct performance and evaluation tests to support market development for electric vehicles; and (2) DOE, the Department of Transportation, the Electric Transportation Coalition, and the Electric Vehicle Association of the Americas are conducting a series of workshops to encourage urban groups in Clean Cities (a DOE program) to initiate the policies and infrastructure development necessary to support large-scale demonstrations, and ultimately the mass market use, of electric vehicles. The current focus of the Program is the collection and dissemination of EV operations and performance data to aid in the evaluation of real-world EV use. This report contains several sections with vehicle evaluation as a focus.

Electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles and their infrastructure in a particular European region

This paper analyses the feasibility of incorporating electric or hybrid vehicles in intermodal transport for the transportation of containers in the pre- and post haulage (PPH) operation. In Europe, the intermodal transport market is being strongly supported, as it is seen as one of the keystones of a sustainable mobility system policy. The introduction of environmentally friendly electric/hybrid vehicles for the pre- and post haulage operation would mean a further enhancement leading to a more complete ecological intermodal transport chain. PPH operations are usually no longer than 30 km, and, hence, could possibly be handled by electric or hybrid vehicles. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) combine electric and other drive systems, such as internal combustion engines, gas turbines and fuel cells. Hybrid electric vehicles merge the zero pollution and high efficiency benefits of electric traction with the high fuel energy density benefits of an energy source or thermal engine. The use of electrically driven vehicles for goods distribution has already been successfully proven in international demonstration projects, such as ELCIDIS. Transport of intermodal units (such as ISO containers), however, requires electric/hybrid heavy-duty goods vehicles, which are not readily available on the market, but for which the technology exists. Different possibilities are assessed as to their technical, financial, organizational and environmental feasibility and suitability. This analysis is based on a typical mission for pre-and post haulage operations, such as type of trips, distance, frequency, urban/suburban, etc.

This eleventh annual report on the implementation of the Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development and Demonstration Act of 1976 (Public Law 94-413, as amended by Public Law 95-238, and Public Law 96-185), referred to as the Act, complies with the reporting requirements established in Section 14 of the Act. In addition to informing Congress of the progress and plans of the Department of Energy's Electric and Hybrid Vechicles Program, this report is intended to serve as a communication link between the Department and all of the public and private interests involved in making the program a success. During FY 1987, significant progress was made toward fulfilling the intent of the Congress in the Act. There has been continuing interest shown by both the automobile manufacturing and supply sectors of our economy in electric and hybrid vehicles. The three major domestic automobile manufacturers are all devoting some effort towards electric vehicles. Their participation includes cost-shared contracts with the Department of Energy and the Electric Power Research Institute as well as independently funded activities. Research and development efforts in batteries and propulsion components continue to achieve significant progress in providing industry with technology options that will result in vehicles that will be more economically competitive and more acceptable to the public.