The Block-based, Text-based, and the CS1 Prepared

This paper explores the potential of virtual education options to fulfill policies designed to broaden participation in computer science (CS) education. Virtual education platforms inherently offer access to a wider range of students than traditional brick-and-mortar schools. Access does not preclude the various socio-economic challenges to engaging these platforms, but this format could be used to mitigate barriers to reaching groups of students that have historically been marginalized in CS courses. In 2019, Georgia passed legislation that requires all middle and high schools to offer CS courses by 2025. The legislation also allowed for virtual courses to satisfy the requirement. While the legislation is intent on broadening participation in CS education, it specifically incorporates a virtual option, making it novel among similar legislative actions across the country. In this context, we examine whether virtual CS courses increase access for marginalized student populations. As such, we explore (1) to what extent do the disparities in CS education found in brick-and-mortar classrooms also appear in virtual settings and (2) to what extent is there an association between modality and rurality on CS course enrollment. Using district enrollment data from 2012 to 2019 for CS courses in Georgia, we calculated the percentage of students in marginalized groups that enrolled in physical courses across the state compared to the percentage enrolled in statewide virtual courses to illuminate existing disparities in enrollment. We conducted this analysis at the district level to highlight variability in representative disparity and the underlying structural differences that might contribute to these disparities. Our analysis provides insight that incorporates the different levels of representative disparity districts have overall. As an early adopter of virtual CS education, the Georgia model provides valuable information for states interested in policies to broaden participation in CS courses.

Teaching formal methods in software construction has often been a concern of several computer science educators. In our opinion, the origin of most of the difficulties in learning formal methods in computer science and software engineering does not lie in computer science courses but in the mathematical background of the students. Moreover, there are numerous obstacles to learning basic concepts noted by both computer science and mathematics educators. To change this situation it is necessary to integrate the work of mathematics and computer science educators. That is, the main focus should be the creation of new educational approachs nourished by two components: a theoretical one (formally introducing discrete mathematics concepts) and an experimental one (implementing those concepts in a suitable programming language). In this paper, using examples from a discrete mathematics course for high school teachers, we describe the main characteristics of our approach.

<italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Contribution:</i> This study evaluates the generalizability of previously identified perceptions among engineering students of assessments in introductory programming (CS1). The students’ perceptions of their instructors’ and teaching assistants’ (TAs) roles in these assessments are also studied, and differences based on prior programming experience, gender, and course explored. <p xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <i>Background:</i> Basic programming skills are desirable also for students who are not majoring in computer science (CS). Students’ experience of assessments has not been fully explored. <p xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <i>Research Questions:</i> 1) How do engineering students experience the assessment (lab assignments, midterm exam, and project) in their CS1 courses? 2) What are the students’ perceptions of the TAs and instructors in relation to these assessment situations? 3) What significant differences can be found based on students’ prior experience in programming, gender, and course? <p xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <i>Methodology:</i> Previously identified themes from an interview study worked as a framework for the formulation of 25 statements used in a survey among 137 students in six CS1 courses (second part of a mixed-method study). Descriptive statistics, Mann–Whitney U Test, and Kruskal–Wallis tests with Bonferroni corrections, were used to analyze the data. <p xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <i>Findings:</i> Laboratory assignments were experienced as an opportunity to learn while the exams were viewed as predictable. The projects were perceived as authentic, although varying in difficulty, and as a huge leap from the lab assignments. Students perceived the instructors to put their touch on the course but viewed their TAs as carrying out the assessments, and experienced variations between TAs. Female students experienced these variations to a larger extent and perceived received feedback as less useful.

Computer science is a higher education domain that still show a significant male dominance. Many research studies have highlighted the importance of diversity and gender balance in computer science related areas such as software engineering and system development. However, there is still a well-identified problem that university programmes and courses on computer science fail to attract the female audience. The objective of this study is to investigate the concept of gender-inclusive computer science (CS) education with the aim of broadening participation in CS courses and programs. This is conducted through a literature study, initially focusing on keywords and research areas, and subsequently searching into existing research. The research question that guided the study was: "What concepts can be found in literature to make computer science education more gender-inclusive?". Data were analysed thematically in a two-step analysis process inspired by the grounded theory methods of Open coding and Axial coding. Findings suggest that there is significant room for learning in this field, particularly from Critical CS education studies. The Open coding analysis showed that the findings can be categorised into eight main themes. In the Axial coding the themes were merged, refined, renamed, and centred around the main axial theme of 'Epistemological pluralism'. Other essential themes that all are related to the axial main theme were: 'Design and creativity', 'Bias awareness and ethics', 'Collaboration and communication', 'Self-regulated learning', 'Real-world applications', and 'Role models and mentorship'. The result of this study is presented through a visual model that illustrates essential aspects of inclusive computer science education. The paper also proposes various directions for future research.

The number of computer science (CS) courses has been dramatically expanding in U.S. high schools (HS). In comparison with well-established courses in mathematics and science, little is known about how the decisions made by HS CS teachers regarding how and what to teach impact student performance later in introductory college CS courses. Drawing on a large sample of 2,871 introductory college CS students at 115 U.S. institutions who had taken a CS course in HS, we examined the topic coverage and prevailing instructional methods in the HS course and investigated how these experiences influenced student performance in college CS. Controlling for differences in student background, we find two predictors of higher grades in college CS: greater frequency of coding-related activities in HS (programming, debugging, studying algorithms) and lower frequency of “non-coding” computer use (e.g., data analysis, computer security). Interaction models revealed a more complex story. Coding-related activity more heavily benefited students who did not have coding help available at home. In the 28% of college CS courses in which instructors employed innovative pedagogies, students with higher ACT or SAT mathematics scores had a greater advantage than in traditionally taught courses. Finally, in the innovative college courses, students whose HS CS exams had typically included testing on vocabulary did worse than students whose exams had not included such tests.

This paper attempts to focus attention on the problem of providing meaningful and effective educational programs for precollege teachers. Computer science departments caught in their own staffing problems have not given much attention to precollege teacher training in computer science. Elementary and secondary schools are experiencing very little turnover in staff. Even when these schools have an open position, individuals entering the teaching field have little or no training in computer science. Yet the need for precollege teachers with a computer science background exists and is growing larger each year. This paper addresses this crisis in computer science education at the precollege level and proposes an approach which can be implemented easily and effectively.

Computer Science educators are constantly reinventing introductory CS0, CS1 and CS2 courses to retain students and increase their learning and motivation. While the focus on drawing students into Computer Science is vital to maintain enrollment, it is also paramount to sustain student motivation by using new pedagogical approaches, contextualized to how students learn, throughout the curriculum to develop technical and interpersonal skills. Many educators have developed one-off courses employing new technology or a project-driven approach to engage students and transfer ready industry skills. Yet, too few have woven a combination of pedagogical approaches sensitive to how students learn with in-demand technology and skills contiguously throughout the upper-level curriculum and tied it to opportunities outside of the classroom. In this poster, we present the initial results of a project with two aims to: (1) design, pilot, and offer new curriculum materials for three upper-level Computer Science courses using a mobile computing platform paired with pedagogical approaches sensitive to the learning styles of today's student; and, (2) develop out-of-classroom learning opportunities including mobile computing student seminars, externship opportunities and service-learning projects reinforcing in-classroom technical skills. We believe that these two components synergistically, can be leveraged to revitalize the undergraduate Computer Science curriculum, better motivate student learning and provide in-demand technical skills to students without losing the fundamental Computer Science concepts. This project is partially supported by NSF DUE#1140781.

In a previous study, we investigated a framework for teaching abstraction in computer science (CS) in the context of an introductory CS course for 7th-grade students. The framework was found effective for developing CS abstraction skills. In this paper, we describe a study that investigated teaching abstraction in CS to 7th-grade students through the perspective of gender. Specifically, we compared the CS abstraction abilities of boys and girls taking the introductory CS course in 7th grade (using the Scratch environment). We also examined the difference in the effect of the teaching strategy on CS abstraction abilities between boys and girls. Our findings show a significant advantage of girls over boys regarding several aspects of CS abstraction. We also found that the framework for teaching CS abstraction, which was already established in our previous study as effective in the context of an introductory course for 7th-grade students, has an enhanced effect in this context when it comes to girls. This enhancement was manifested by a better overall performance by the girls, when comparing boys and girls that took an introductory CS course in which this framework was used. It was also manifested by the girls' deeper and more reliable perception of CS. We conjecture that this framework has the potential to affect girls' self-efficacy, and as a result to create a positive effect by encouraging and motivating girls to pursue CS education beyond this introductory course. That is, this framework has the potential to contribute to solving the issue of underrepresentation of females at the different stages of CS education, or in other words, to widening the CS pipeline for females.

Background & Context Continuously developing teachers’ knowledge, practice, and professional identity is one of the key standards for effective computer science (CS) teachers. Objective This study aims to understand the landscape of CS teachers in the United States, the professional identity they hold, and how their background and teaching context are associated with their CS teacher identity. Method Using data of 3540 teachers, we performed a two-step cluster analysis to reveal homogeneous subgroups of CS teachers. The relationship between teachers’ backgrounds and their CS teacher identity was also assessed. Findings This study identified four profiles of CS teachers based on their professional identity. . CS teacher identity is strongly associated with teachers’ Computer Science Teachers Association membership, teaching responsibility, teaching experience, and their exposure to CS coursework. Implications More professional support is needed for CS teachers, especially for early-career CS teachers, elementary school teachers, and teachers with multiple responsibilities and little CS background.

Despite the growing demand for computer science (CS) education for K-12 students, one of the most significant barriers to schools offering CS courses is the lack of certified teachers [1]. According to a report by Code.org [2], only a few states have initial CS certification teacher pathways resulting in differences among the types of qualification pathways. The lack of consistent and clear information is confusing for teachers, school districts, and advocacy groups. One of the challenges of creating a clear understanding of computer science teacher certification in the United States is that certificates can have many meanings, and definitions differ from state to state [3]. This study gathers nationwide data of all the pathways to teach computer science to create definitions for the multitude of CS credential pathways and demonstrates the spectrum of credential pathways. The first round of data collection focused on identifying the requirements for obtaining a CS credential from the state's board of education website and other CS advocacy websites. The second round of data collection included email correspondence with certification or CS education professionals for the states where information was not easily accessible or clear. After the data was organized into the three defined CS qualified teaching pathways, the computer science certification professionals in all 50 states were emailed to member-check the categories and pathways for their respective state. The research team identified the following three qualification categories and defined the term as seen below. Initial Licensure: Pre-service teachers can teach CS by getting initial certification from a university/college or other institution (Required BA or BS, Passing test, or others). Add-on Licensure: Through a test (e.g., Praxis, Pearson, or state test), PD, or other requirements, Preservice or in-service teachers who already have certification/licensure can teach CS by adding CS licensure. Authorization: Legally allowed to teach CS, the educator does not need to prove CS knowledge. Another subject teacher and subject matter expert (not certified teacher) can be authorized. We found 19 states have an initial licensure pathway, 44 have add-on licensure, 22 have an authorization pathway, and 3 states did not have any computer science credential policy. There were also different levels of complexity in each category, making it much easier to receive a credential in some states than others. This study gathered nationwide data on all the pathways to teach CS. It highlights the discrepancies in terminology, making cohesion, and gathering information difficult for teachers wishing to teach computer science. Several states are doing exemplary creating policies for in-service teachers to easily access CS teaching qualifications. These types of add-on or authorization policies can serve as examples for states who do not have initial certification programs yet want to provide computer science education to students.

In the quest to study and deliver Computer Science (CS) education reform, attention to gate-keeping teacher characteristics is imperative. Broad research in teacher education has demonstrated that teacher dispositions are an important driver of teacher motivation, professional choices, and classroom practices. Identification and measurements of teacher dispositions enables further analysis of how teacher beliefs may support or hinder effective practice in CS instruction, how teacher populations may differ, and how identified dispositions may change with exposure to various CS learning experiences. We analyzed 17 key documents produced by 12 national CS organizations using a grounded theory methodology to identify desirable attitudes and beliefs associated with CS and the CS education reform movement. The documents included standards, corporate research reports, advocacy tools for CS education, and organizational documents of professional associations for CS and CS Education. The analysis yielded several important dispositional targets for description and measurement in the area of teacher attitudes and beliefs. An analysis of 98 coded segments related to dispositions yielded consensus attitudes and beliefs. Professional documents in CS highlight an equity orientation, a teacher growth mindset, and identify key beliefs regarding (career) outcomes and epistemology of CS. It is possible, based on this analysis, to create a profile of a teacher who demonstrates the attitudes and beliefs of a reform-aligned CS teacher, the CS "Champion''. Instrument development along these factors is an important next step towards unlocking the analytical power of teacher attitudes and beliefs.

ABSTRACTBackground and Context: The relationship between novices’ first programming language and their future achievement has drawn increasing interest owing to recent efforts to expand K–12 computing education. This article contributes to this topic by analyzing data from a retrospective study of more than 10,000 undergraduates enrolled in introductory computer science courses at 118 U.S. institutions of higher education.Objective: We explored the relationship between students’ first programming languages and both their final grades in an introductory computer science course and their attitudes about programming.Method: Multiple matching techniques compared those whose first language was graphical (e.g., Scratch), textual (e.g., Java), or absent prior to college.Findings: Having any prior programming experience had positive effects on both attitudes about programming and grades in introductory computer science courses. Importantly, students whose first language was graphical had higher grades than did students whose first language was textual, when the languages were introduced in or before early adolescent years.Implications: Learning any computer language is better than learning none. If programming is to be taught to students before early adolescence, it is advised to start with a graphical language. Future work should investigate the transition between different types of programming languages.

Computer literacy and programming are being taught increasingly at the K-12 level with more students than ever matriculating in college with prior programming experience. Accurately assessing student programming skills acquired in high school can inform college faculty about the range of competencies in introductory programming courses. The tool predominantly-used for assessing past CS knowledge and skills is a survey, which lacks quantitative rigor. This study aims to (1) quantify the effects of prior knowledge in entry-level programming courses and (2) compare the different measurement approaches of student prior knowledge in programming, including surveys and aptitude tests. The results of this study reveal that a discrepancy exists between the results of surveys and aptitude tests. Consistent with prior survey studies, our survey results showed that the effects of student prior programming knowledge faded gradually during the course period. In contrast, the aptitude test results indicated that the effects of student prior knowledge did not weaken over time. The accuracy of both measurements and implications for instructors were further discussed.

This paper reports on a statewide “Computer Science for All” initiative in Oregon that aims to democratize high school computer science and broaden participation in an academic subject that is one of the most segregated disciplines nationwide, in terms of both race and gender. With no statewide policies to support computing instruction, Oregon’s legacy of computer science education has been marked by both low participation and by rates of underrepresented students falling well-below the already dismal national rates. The study outlined in this paper focuses on how teacher education can support educators in developing knowledge and agency, and impacting policies and practices that broaden participation in computing. In particular, this research seeks to understand two questions. First, how do teachers experience equity-focused professional development in preparation for teaching an introductory course in computer science? Second, this study queries, how do teachers understand their own agency in influencing policies and practices that broaden participation in their specific schools and classrooms? To answer these questions, this inquiry employed a mixed method approach, drawing from surveys, observations, and interview data of two cohorts of teachers who participated in the Exploring Computer Science professional development program. To show the variety of school contexts and situate computer science education in local and place-based policies and practices, three teacher case studies are presented that illustrate how individual teachers, in diverse geographic and demographic settings, are building inclusive computer science opportunities in their schools. The findings reveal that centering equity-focused teacher professional development supports teachers in formulating the confidence, knowledge and skills that lead to inclusive computer science instruction, computer science content, and equity-centered pedagogy. The findings also highlight how school reform in computer science requires not only technical and pedagogical supports and structures, but also a systemic rethinking and reworking of normative and political forces that are part of the fabric of schools. Based on these findings of teacher knowledge and agency, the paper concludes with a presentation of particular statewide policies and practices that are generative in broadening belief systems and expanding political capacity of computer science education to reach all students.

Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) is not only seen by computer science departments as an optional free and low cost technology to support their IT infrastructure and administrative duties, but also as a methodology to improve pedagogy and provide opportunities for students to learn. As a result, many teachers are turning to FOSS projects and communities as effective tools to teach computer science courses and give their students significant real-world experience. However, few teaching and learning models exist that can help computer science teachers provide guidance and mentorship for their students' involvement in FOSS projects. In order to address this gap in computer science education, this paper presents a teaching and learning model that was evaluated using a series of pilot studies conducted with software engineering students. Experiences and lessons learnt from the pilot studies shows one possible way teachers can guide students' involvement in FOSS projects and how this approach can be integrated into a formally structured curriculum. Index Terms—Capstone projects, computer science education, curriculum design, open source software communities, open source software projects, software engineering.