The Demand for Nuclear Power in Deep-Sea Resource Development: A Scenario-Based Analysis

The paper describes the characteristics of small modular reactors (SMR), their differences from existing nuclear power plants and the features of their use in modern hybrid electric power systems in combination with renewable energy sources and Nuclear Renewable Hybrid Energy System (NRHES) electricity storage, their advantages and problems of use in the future power system of Ukraine. Prospects for cooperation in this area with companies from the United States of America were considered. Small modular SMR reactors are suitable for electrical systems of various capacities, their modular system allows flexibility and speed of construction, reduces capital investment needs and eases financing requirements. The smaller size and variety of reactors can also mean that they can be built in locations not traditionally suitable for large nuclear power plants and, importantly, near energy-intensive industries or remote communities, i.e. as elements of distributed generation. They can ensure a reliable supply of not only electricity, but also heat. SMRs can also be deployed at decommissioned coal-fired power plants. Taking advantage of existing infrastructure, including switchgear and coal-fired turbines, could reduce SMR construction costs and avoid the need to add new transmission lines from these facilities. Problems with the implementation of such networks are revealed. Attention was drawn to the increased complexity of the system in connection with the use of various sources of generation and processes of distribution and consumption of electricity. The main technical characteristics, features of the reactor design, the station building, safety systems and control systems are given. The study concludes that SMRs have significant advantages for use in modern networks, due to their modular design and modular deployment, to meet a variety of power switching and scaling requirements.

11 - Licensing of small modular reactors (SMRs)

There are two categories of requirements: (i) user requirements that need to be met by the designers and manufacturers of innovative reactors and fuel cycles, and (ii) a wide spectrum of requirements that need to be met by countries, willing to successfully deploy innovative nuclear reactors for energy production. This part of the International Project on Innovative Reactors and Fuel Cycles will mainly deal with the second category of requirements. Both categories of requirements will vary depending on the institutional development, infrastructure availability and social attitude in any given country. Out of the need for sustainable development requirements will also more specific in the future. Over a 50-year time frame both categories of requirements will evolve with social and economic development as nuclear technology develops further. For example, the deployment of innovative reactors in countries with marginal or non-existing nuclear infrastructures would be possible only if the reactors are built, owned and operated by an international nuclear utility or if they are inherently safe and can be delivered as a “black box - nuclear battery”. A number of issues will need to be addressed and conditions and requirements developed if this is going to become a reality. One general requirement for wider utilization of innovative nuclear power will be the public and environmental considerations, which will play a role in the decision making processes. Five main clusters of topics will be handled: • Infrastuctural aspects, typology and consequences for nuclear development. • Industrial requirements for the different innovative concepts. • Institutional developments and requirements for future deployment of nuclear energy. (National as well as international). • Socio-political aspects, a.o. public acceptance and role of governments. • Sustainability: requirements following the need for sustainability. Analysis will be made of the evolution of national and international social, institutional and infrastructure requirements for the deployment of innovative nuclear technology through 2050 and beyond and requirements will be identified following the need for.

Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) are being explored by the NRC and DOE as a means of producing nuclear energy on a smaller scale. Because of their modularity, they are presumed to be both less costly and more efficient to produce. This paper describes the historical context of SMRs, as well as potential issues relating to the social context of SMRs if they are deployed in society on different scales, from the local to the national and international. Understanding SMRs as sociotechnical systems allows for different conception of the role of SMRs as a technology that could potentially reorganize society, which needs to be accounted for prior to deployment. The concept of the sociotechnical imaginary also provides another way of considering how SMRs both shape and are shaped by national imperatives for energy production and markets.

Small modular reactors (SMRs) are factory-built transportable nuclear power plants (NPPs) that can generate up to 300 MWe and support new applications for nuclear energy such as hydrogen production, industrial heat generation, and water desalination. SMRs are poised for near-term deployment in the United States and offer improvements over existing NPPs such as passive safety features, greater plant site flexibility, reduced construction costs, load-following operations, and extended refueling cycles. However, in order to realize the benefits of SMRs, there are several challenges related to instrumentation and control (I&C) system components that must be addressed. The I&C systems of an SMR ensure its safe and efficient operation. I&C sensors measure process parameters such as temperature, pressure, level, flow, and neutron flux and provide input to the Reactor Protection System (RPS) to initiate a rapid shutdown if necessary. The performance of these safety-related I&C sensors and systems must be periodically verified to ensure they meet the plant technical specifications for accuracy and response time. In addition, the associated I&C cabling (which includes low-voltage cable assemblies for sensors, Control Rod Drive Mechanisms (CRDMs), and Rod Position Indication (RPI) Systems) is tested as part of normal plant maintenance activities or in support of aging management programs. Over time, exposure to harsh environmental conditions in the plant can result in degradation and failure of I&C sensors and cables. This is especially true for the I&C sensors and cables in SMRs which will be subjected to elevated temperatures, high radiation, and a vacuum atmosphere within the containment vessel during normal plant operation. These conditions lead to excessive Ohmic heating within the cables which further accelerates damage to the cable insulation material and results in premature failure. Frequent cable replacement due to premature degradation is not practical or economical for SMR plant owners. To combat these environmental stressors, the ampacity of the cable must be derated. However, there is limited experience to date with cable derating in vacuum, and no experience with cable derating in vacuum at high temperature and radiation. As a result, Analysis and Measurement Services Corporation (AMS) is conducting a study on several common NPP I&C cables to determine how various insulation materials perform at conditions that emulate those anticipated in the containment of an SMR. The on-going effort is funded under a research and development (R&D) grant awarded to AMS by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). In addition, AMS is partnering with the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) to conduct specialized testing in support of this study under a separate initiative called the Gateway for Accelerated Innovation in Nuclear (GAIN). The goal of this R&D is to develop technical guidance and technologies to support initial startup and subsequent operation of SMRs through specialized testing services and condition monitoring technologies. Preliminary results of this R&D are provided in this paper. AMS will continue to investigate challenges associated with I&C systems for SMR applications in support of the timely deployment of the first U.S.-based SMR by the mid-2020s.

This article provides a comparative analysis of the economics of cost to design for two promising future nuclear energy technologies: Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) and Fusion power. Small Modular Reactors offer advantages such as lower initial capital costs, shorter construction times, enhanced safety features, and fuel efficiency. In contrast, fusion power, while holding great potential, faces significant challenges due to high research and development costs, complex engineering requirements, and stringent regulatory demands. The choice between SMRs and fusion power depends on regional energy demands, financial considerations, and sustainability goals. Ultimately, a blend of nuclear, renewable, and conventional energy sources may collectively address the global energy challenge and combat climate change effectively

The prospects of small modular reactors in Southeast Asia

Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) are emerging as a promising technological option to support both the decarbonization and decentralization of energy systems. Defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as advanced reactors producing up to 300 MW(e) per module, SMRs are characterized by their reduced size, modular design, and potential for factory-based manufacturing and deployment in remote or off-grid locations. Their integration into distributed energy resource (DER) systems could help achieve climate and energy security goals, especially within the framework of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and European climate policy. However, the legal and institutional frameworks governing SMRs remain fragmented, both internationally and at the European and national levels. This chapter critically assesses the extent to which existing legal regimes—covering nuclear safety, environmental protection, and energy governance—are equipped to regulate SMRs in accordance with the principles of sustainable development. It identifies key legal vulnerabilities, including definitional ambiguity, regulatory inertia, and insufficient public participation, and evaluates how emerging regulations address issues of energy justice, intergenerational equity, and environmental integrity. Drawing on a comparative analysis of European Union law and selected national frameworks (notably France, Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom), the chapter highlights the urgent need for harmonized legal standards tailored to SMRs. It argues for the integration of democratic governance mechanisms and distributive fairness into future SMR regulation, with a view to enhancing both the legitimacy and sustainability of nuclear innovation in decentralized energy models.

Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) are gaining significant attention as nuclear power sources due to their advantages, such as compact design, enhanced safety features compared to large nuclear plants, and scalability for varying power output needs. To successfully consider this emerging technology, understanding SMR designs and their readiness levels is essential for informed decision making and effective planning. This technical review provides insights into the potential, development, and application of SMR technology. Various SMR designs were investigated to identify those in deployment, commercial operation, or nearing deployment stages. Key technical parameters of advanced-stage SMRs, with some local insights, were analyzed to establish a comprehensive set of criteria for future technical and economic assessments in the context of local applications. Additionally, this study outlines potential phases for SMR project implementation in the Philippines, referencing the IAEA Milestone Approach for nuclear power infrastructure development. Relevant policies, issues, and activities are also discussed, highlighting the status of the country’s nuclear power infrastructure, as well as its legislative and regulatory framework for supporting nuclear energy. While certain SMR technologies show technical readiness, it is important to consider that many are still under development, requiring a careful evaluation of factors such as the 19 Infrastructure Issues to ensure a successful SMR deployment in the Philippines.

This project was a collaboration between the University of Oklahoma (OU) and the University of Michigan (UMich). The overall objective of the project was to address a critical problem facing the siting of nuclear facilities, where there is no mechanism for incorporating public attitudes at a state and local level into decision-making. Utilizing recent advances in data modeling over local spatial scales, the research team created a state and county level map of public attitudes towards nuclear energy. Current estimates for public acceptance of nuclear technologies primarily exists on a national level, and sub-national estimates of public opinion about reactor siting, research facilities, transport routes, or storage and disposal facilities are very scarce. Model results from this project provide a systematic basis for technology developers to evaluate public acceptance across alternative siting options as a critical component for weighing potential benefit-cost tradeoffs for alternative paths to deploy new nuclear facilities. The project utilized data from the largest database of nuclear attitudes in the US, coupled with Census and elections-related data as well as data on social vulnerability and proximity to current nuclear facilities. In addition to modeling public support, the team also developed an interactive map to showcase results, using an online tool called Public and Local Attitudes about Nuclear Energy Technologies (PLANET). The tool allows technology developers and stakeholders to interact with the model results and better understand variation in support for nuclear facility siting on a state and county level. The interactive nature of the tool also allows users to analyze results in a targeted way, by comparing levels of support across different states and/or counties as desired.

Achieving net-zero energy systems requires combining technological deployment with governance innovations that secure public legitimacy, equity and international credibility. Nuclear energy – including large reactors and emerging small modular reactors (SMRs) – offers firm, low-carbon power that can complement variable renewables, but expansion is constrained by public distrust, governance fragmentation, workforce challenges and concerns about cost and waste. This article advances the Qudrat-Ullah Nuclear Peace and Trust (Q-NPT) framework as a systemic governance approach that explicitly embeds trust, equity and institutional learning into nuclear energy deployment strategies, aligning nuclear investments with energy transition objectives. Using Canada as a detailed case, we map Q-NPT elements onto Canadian governance structures, energy infrastructure and nascent SMR programs. Empirical material (national generation shares, regulatory milestones, SMR licensing progress and workforce trends) shows both the opportunity and the governance barriers Canada faces.This study introduces measurable governance metrics – covering trust, equity, transparency, participation and institutional capacity – to evaluate nuclear social legitimacy and transition readiness. Quantitative thresholds include targeted increases of ≥20 percentage points in public trust; ≥25% Indigenous participation in decision processes; ≥80–90% transparency in project documentation and a workforce pipeline of 75,000–90,000 skilled workers by 2040. These thresholds provide a predictive, results-oriented basis for evaluating governance progress, addressing a key gap in existing nuclear policy frameworks.We propose actionable institutional reforms (independent trust panels, stakeholder engagement protocols, workforce pipelines and international integration strategies) and an operational roadmap for Q-NPT implementation. Results indicate that applying Q-NPT measurably improves governance performance compared to conventional models by elevating trust, reducing procedural conflict, strengthening equity outcomes and accelerating regulatory acceptance. Without such deliberate trust-building and equity mechanisms, nuclear energy’s technical potential will remain underutilized; conversely, Q-NPT provides a structured pathway for achieving just, credible and scalable decarbonization.

Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) are becoming one of the key trends in the development of nuclear technology, offering a flexible, safe and cost-effective alternative to large nuclear power plants. This review defines the “driving force” of SMRs as their ability to enhance safety, modular scalability, and fuel sustainability through innovative design and policy integration. It aims to provide a systematic assessment of technological trends, deployment strategies, and fuel innovations that underpin the future of nuclear energy. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the main classes of SMRs, categorised by fuel type and application, ranging from Low-Enriched Uranium (LEU) and High-Assay Low-Enriched Uranium (HALEU) reactors to thorium-232, metallic fuel and reprocessed nuclear materials. The key technical advantages of SMRs are discussed—passive safety systems, extended fuel cycles (longer operational periods before refuelling compared to conventional reactors), modular production and compactness—which make such reactors particularly suitable for use in hard-to-reach regions, military facilities, in space and as part of hybrid power systems. Special attention is paid to the prospects of advanced fuel cycles, including the conversion of thorium to uranium-233 and the reuse of actinides, which contributes to waste reduction and supports the realisation of a closed nuclear cycle. The current status of SMR projects around the world is also analysed, highlighting the most promising solutions and discussing regulatory, infrastructure readiness and geopolitical factors.

Achieving net-zero energy systems requires combining technological deployment with governance innovations that secure public legitimacy, equity and international credibility. Nuclear energy – including large reactors and emerging small modular reactors (SMRs) – offers firm, low-carbon power that can complement variable renewables, but expansion is constrained by public distrust, governance fragmentation, workforce challenges and concerns about cost and waste. This article advances the Qudrat-Ullah Nuclear Peace and Trust (Q-NPT) framework as a systemic governance approach that explicitly embeds trust, equity and institutional learning into nuclear energy deployment strategies, aligning nuclear investments with energy transition objectives. Using Canada as a detailed case, we map Q-NPT elements onto Canadian governance structures, energy infrastructure and nascent SMR programs. Empirical material (national generation shares, regulatory milestones, SMR licensing progress and workforce trends) shows both the opportunity and the governance barriers Canada faces.This study introduces measurable governance metrics – covering trust, equity, transparency, participation and institutional capacity – to evaluate nuclear social legitimacy and transition readiness. Quantitative thresholds include targeted increases of ≥20 percentage points in public trust; ≥25% Indigenous participation in decision processes; ≥80–90% transparency in project documentation and a workforce pipeline of 75,000–90,000 skilled workers by 2040. These thresholds provide a predictive, results-oriented basis for evaluating governance progress, addressing a key gap in existing nuclear policy frameworks.We propose actionable institutional reforms (independent trust panels, stakeholder engagement protocols, workforce pipelines and international integration strategies) and an operational roadmap for Q-NPT implementation. Results indicate that applying Q-NPT measurably improves governance performance compared to conventional models by elevating trust, reducing procedural conflict, strengthening equity outcomes and accelerating regulatory acceptance. Without such deliberate trust-building and equity mechanisms, nuclear energy’s technical potential will remain underutilized; conversely, Q-NPT provides a structured pathway for achieving just, credible and scalable decarbonization.

The Power Reactor Innovative Small Module (PRISM) designed by GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy is a small, modular, sodium-cooled fast reactor. The PRISM core is located in a pool-type containment vessel and is fueled with metallic fuel. Each PRISM produces 311 MW of electricity. The PRISM is inherently safe due to its negative power reactivity feedback, large in-vessel coolant inventory, passive heat removal systems, below-grade siting, and atmospheric reactor vessel operating pressure. In NUREG-1368, “Preapplication Safety Evaluation Report for the Power Reactor Innovative Small Module (PRISM) Liquid-Metal Reactor,” the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission stated that “On the basis of the review performed, the staff, with the ACRS [Advisory Committee on Reactor Safeguards] in agreement, concludes that no obvious impediments to licensing the PRISM design have been identified.” PRISM is able to fission electrometallurgically recycled used nuclear fuel (UNF) from light water reactors as well as weapons-grade materials. PRISM, with the associated Nuclear Fuel Recycling Center, represents a safe, diversion resistant, commercially viable technology for recycling UNF with a small modular reactor.

21 - Small modular reactors (SMRs): The case of the United States of America