The Estonian Language and Its Influence on Music: A Cognitive Sciences Approach

The purpose of this study was to determine the usefulness of music task performance in the assessment of cognitive functioning among older adults with dementia. A secondary purpose was preliminary development of a protocol to be used in this type of assessment. Subjects in the study were 32 women aged 57–99 years who resided in a nursing home or attended an adult day care center. Data were collected by means of the Mini-Mental State Exam (MMSE), the Brief Cognitive Rating Scale (BCRS), the Severe Impairment Battery (SIB), and 19 specially designed music performance tasks which emphasized verbal, singing, and rhythm skills. Information on music training, experience, and attitude also was collected. Four research questions were formulated for the study which examined the relationships between training, experience and attitude about music and music task performance; relationships between cognitive and music task performance; differences between individuals with and without dementia with respect to music task performance, and dependability of music task performance items. Minimal relationships were found between music background variables and music task performance, however, strong relationships were found between cognitive and music task performance. Significant differences on music performance tasks between individuals with and without dementia emerged, and music performance tasks were found to be consistent and to have good discriminatory ability. Implications of these findings for the professional credibility of music therapy are discussed, as are recommendations for further development of the music performance protocol.

The Language Question in the Learned Estonian Society Kersti Taal University of Tartu Library The purpose of the Learned Estonian Society (LES) established in 1838 became to promote knowledge about the past and future of the Estonian nation, its language and literature and the lands settled by Estonians. Thus, studying and developing the Estonian language was one of the most important tasks of the Society. In this article, the language question is viewed from two perspectives: researching the Estonian language in the 19th century and the transition from German to Estonian in 1928/1929. LES started its activity at a time when even the first Estonian intellectuals, the founding members of the Society, were not yet certain whether Estonian would develop into a cultural language or whether the language of this small nation would fade away. Both the Estonians and German Estophiles thought that the language should be studied at least for the benefit of the future generations. In addition to the lecturers of the Estonian language at the University of Tartu, D. H. Jürgenson and Fr. R. Faehlmann, language studies were conducted by German pastors in the first decades. The most important linguistic undertaking became the compilation of an Estonian-German dictionary. The work progressed slowly and the dictionary was completed by F. J. Wiedemann, a member of LES and an academician at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences as late as in the 1860s. The Ehstnisch-deutsches Wörterbuch was published in 1869 by the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences since LES lacked money for it. In the second half of the 19th century Estonian was studied by the Estonians J. Hurt, M. Veske, and others. Villem Reiman was involved in publishing examples to commemorate the Old Written Language and, thus, LES published Georg Müller’s sermons, Joachim Rossihnius’s catechism and sermons dating back to the 17th century. Although Estonian was not spoken in LES in the 19th century, the Society received letters in Estonian: they were not considered untoward since some of the German members of the society were also fluent in Estonian in addition to the Estonian members. In the 19th century, only a tenth of the Society members were Estonian. When LES recommenced its activity in 1919 in the Republic of Estonia as a German-language organisation, the Germans still held the majority (in 1921 only 36 of the 164 members were Estonian). The first Estonian-language presentation – “The water deity Noova of the Livonians” – was made by Lauri Kettunen, a Finnish professor of the Estonian language on 1 March 1922. In 1928, just before the tenth anniversary of the Republic of Estonia, most of the lectures in the University of Tartu were held in Estonian and the public was increasingly asking the question of how long would the Learned Estonian Society, which was supported by the state, continue to be a German-language organisation? During the 1928 March session, the Society started to discuss the proposal of Henrik Koppel, rector of the University of Tartu, to make Estonian the official language of the Learned Estonian Society. Although the Germans did not agree with the decision, they had to accept the situation, as theirs was a minority opinion. The Germans specifically opposed that the Society’s publications would be in Estonian. The yearbook and transactions remained in German since they were meant for knowledge exchange and introducing Estonian research abroad. The Letters publication series in which works on folk poetry and ethnography were published was started to be issued in Estonian. The Germans reacted to the LES turning into an Estonian-language organisation with withdrawal; Professor Walter Anderson resigned from the position of the Society chairman and no longer edited publications. A new, mainly Estonian board was elected as late as on 4 December 1929, as the Estonians did not hold the majority in the previous year. Julius Mark, professor of linguistics, was elected the chairman. The transition to Estonian was accompanied by great changes in the entire activity of the Society. The new management succeeded in getting more financial support for the Society and its publications developed into more extensive works. Since LES turned into an Estonian-language organisation, it did not meet the fate of many other German-language societies (E(h)stländische Literärische Gesellschaft, Pernauer Alterthumforschende Gesellschaft), which ended their activity in 1939 as the Baltic Germans left.

Humans have the capacity to invent novel ideas and to create new artifacts that affect the surrounding environment. However, it is unclear how this capacity emerges and develops in biological systems. This paper presents an empirical study which investigates the development of novelty-based cognitive processes in the context of unstructured music-making activities in early childhood. We used principles of intuitive theories of emergence, the paradigm of overlapping waves of mechanisms of change and theories of music cognitive development to theoretically conceptualize the developmental process in the specific context. We applied the methodological principles of micro-genetic analysis for the development of an annotation scheme of micro-behaviors, which correspond to a set of cognitive processes. We took into consideration child's behavioral manifestations of music-induced affective engagement, as an indicator of intrinsic motivation. Our results suggest that the process of transition from spontaneous towards deliberate actions develops through exploratory actions, evaluation of the outcomes, reasoning and planning. The structure of these actions appears in the form of dynamic overlapping waves rather than in a linear or iterative manner. Additionally, our results indicate that children in early years make use of the affordances of the provided tools to scaffold their transition from concrete visual representation of sonic features towards abstract musical thinking, which suggests that musical development appears with the generative tension between action and symbol. Implications and future work are discussed regarding the development of intelligent robotic systems for user adaptive scaffolding of the observed mechanisms of change.

This position paper makes the case for an innovative, multi-disciplinary methodological approach to advance knowledge on the nature and work of music performance, driven by a novel experiential perspective, that also benefits analysis of electrocardiographic sequences. Music performance is considered by many to be one of the most breathtaking feats of human intelligence. It is well accepted that music performance is a creative act, but the nature of its work remains elusive. Taking the view of performance as an act of creative problem solving, ideas in citizen science and data science, optimization, and computational thinking provide means through which to deconstruct the process of music performance in scalable ways. The method tackles music expression's lack of notation-based data by leveraging listeners' perception and experience of the structures elicited by the performer, with implications for data collection and processing. The tools offer ways to parse a musical sequence into coherent structures, to design a performance, and to explore the space of possible interpretations of the musical sequence. These ideas and tools can be applied to other music-like sequences such as electrocardiographic recordings of arrhythmias (abnormal heart rhythms). Leveraging musical thinking and computational approaches to performance analysis, variations in expressions of cardiac arrhythmias can be more finely characterized, with implications for tailoring therapies and stratifying heart rhythm disorders.

In recent years, the relationship between working memory and second language acquisition has been a hot topic in the field of second language acquisition. The impact of second language learners’ working memory capacity on their second language acquisition is inconclusive. Researchers have called for further investigation into the role of working memory in second language development when reviewing literature on working memory in second language acquisition. called for further investigation into the role of working memory in second language development when reviewing literature on working memory in second language contexts and language contexts. Therefore, this study aims to explore whether and how working memory capacity affects overall English proficiency. The research question is: what is the correlation between high school students' working memory capacity and their English grades? This study used empirical research methods and randomly selected 37 high school students from a school in Dujiangyan, Chengdu as participants. empirical research methods and randomly selected 37 high school students from a school in Dujiangyan, Chengdu as participants. Data sources included Data sources included working memory capacity tests and English proficiency tests, both of which were conducted in the students’ classrooms. Descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation analysis were performed using SPSS 26.0 statistical analysis software. The study shows that there is a significant correlation between working memory capacity and English proficiency test scores. The correlation between The correlation between working memory and English proficiency test scores suggests that individual differences in working memory capacity can affect important cognitive activities such as listening, reading comprehension, reasoning, writing, and problem-solving. The correlation between working memory and English proficiency test scores suggests that individual differences in working memory capacity can affect important cognitive activities such as listening, reading comprehension, reasoning, writing, and problem-solving.

The article discusses various aspects and provides a theoretical analysis of research on the development of musical abilities and their impact on personality psychology. Several studies point to potential mechanisms underlying the development of musical skills and the influence of music on brain activity. The interest of scientists in the problem of developing musical abilities in personality is highlighted within the context of neuroscience, the influence of the emotional sphere on music perception, and the formation of musical preferences in both children and adults. The article examines the issue of musical ability development and its age-specific characteristics, their structure, and the role of general abilities in musical development. The article aims to examine and systematize the theoretical aspects related to the development of musical abilities in individuals, to study contemporary theories, to consolidate scientific approaches, and to deepen research in this field. The research provides definitions of the concept of "musical abilities" by representatives of various fields of knowledge: psychology, musicology, music pedagogy, as well as their classification. A characterization of musicality as a special mental function and the concept of the synesthetic nature of musicality are provided. It has been proven that musicality influences personality development, making it more integrated and balanced, fostering the development of various aspects: intellectual, emotional, social, and creative. It is noted that a person's musical giftedness is based on sensory musical abilities, the main ones being musical ear, sense of rhythm, and musical memory. The article examines the issue of developing musical ear - the most important sensory musical ability, the development of which is associated with a high level of human mental evolution. A number of scientific studies on the perception of musical rhythm are analyzed, and the development of a sense of musical rhythm in children is discussed. The definition of the concept of musical memory as a separate musical ability is provided, describing its classification, functioning, and interrelated types. Emphasis is placed on the necessity of continual training for its development and improvement. The concept of musical thinking and musical imagination is separately examined, reflecting aspects of cognitive and creative activity in music. Conclusions are drawn regarding the development of musical abilities as a universal tool for personal growth.

Abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic abruptly halted live performances, disrupting professional singers’ singing engagements. Singers reported significant changes in vocal function, psychological responses, and career trajectories. This qualitative study involving semistructured interviews with ten professional singers explores musical styles, performance practices, hiatus history, vocal injuries, emotional and physical impacts, and rehabilitative practices. Participants experienced notable mental and physical health changes, financial difficulties, and challenges with virtual and live performance transitions. Most did not pursue formal rehabilitation but believed it would have been beneficial. These findings highlight the unique challenges singers faced and suggest broader implications for other prolonged breaks.

This research aims to analyze the category of music performance contract cancellations due to controversial actions and the forms of non-litigation dispute resolution between the event organizer and 1975. This study combines normative and empirical research methods. Subsequently, the collected data were analyzed qualitatively to describe the problem and address the research purposes. The results show that the controversial actions of The 1975 vocalist in Malaysia, leading to the cancellation of their performance at “We the Fest 2023” in Jakarta, constitute a breach of contract. This cancellation not only reveals the direct impact on the event but also highlights the importance of clauses in contracts that specifically regulate public behavior and the potential consequences of such behavior, both legally and ethically. Furthermore, the dispute resolution between the Event Organizer and The 1975 following the cancellation of their performance was achieved through negotiation. The dispute resolution process between the two parties was effective and took only two days, demonstrating that negotiation is a quick and efficient non-litigious method. Therefore, it is recommended that event organizers and artists, singers, or bands include and clarify clauses in performance contracts related to public behavior and its potential consequences. These clauses should detail the fines or legal consequences that may arise from controversial actions that could negatively affect the execution of the contract or the reputation of the involved parties. Additionally, Event Organizers are advised to set behavior standards that band personnel must adhere to while on stage, thereby minimizing the risk of future music performance cancellations. Lastly, both Event Organizers and music bands should prioritize non-litigation as the initial step before pursuing litigation, as negotiation has proven efficient and effective in resolving disputes arising from breaches of contract due to controversial actions.

Statement of the problem. The modern information society using cutting-edge digital tools and resources, requires innovative approaches in education aimed at shaping the personality of students in all the diversity of their activities. In today’s globalized space, where innovation and creativity are key success factors, it is important to cultivate students’ skills in creative thinking and self-expression. The turbulent Ukrainian present became a challenge for the development and establishment of a new educational system oriented on the personal type of teaching. An urgent need to improve pedagogical technologies encourages the search for a new educational paradigm, allowing Ukraine to stay abreast of global innovative processes. The course “Choral Arrangement” is aimed at developing the creative potential of choirmaster students, which is undoubtedly a relevant task in the modern educational space. Objectives, methods, and novelty of the research. The personal oriented approach in higher education is an actively researched topic, by domestic (Podmazin, 2006; Bekh, 2003) and foreign (Heikkila, Niemivirta, Nieminen, & Lonka, 2010) authors. A number of studies are devoted to pedagogical innovations (Dychkivska, 2004; Ihnatovich, 2019; Danilenko, 2006) and the psychological and pedagogical aspect of personal development (Moliako, 2003; Turynina, 2007; Mishchykha, 2010), the musical pedagogy (Smyrnova, 2021; Zhernovnykova, & Van Tsin I, 2017; Plotnytska, 2021) and the contemporary trends in choral conducting education too (Dolchuk, 2008; Smyrnova, 2008; Karpenko, 2021; Semenchuk, 2022). However, the questions of the impact of choral arrangement on the development of music creative skills of choirmaster students, as well as the search for innovative teaching methods and organizational forms that contribute to the formation of unique musical personalities, requires further analytical refinement. The purpose of the article is to determine the role of choral arrangement in developing the creative potential of choirmasters’ students, their musical thinking, performance and interpretive skills. The study is also focused on finding innovative approaches to teaching the “Choral Arrangement” discipline that contribute to more effective development of unique artistic individuals, which capable to self-improvement and professional growth as choral conductors. The interaction of personal, competence and contextual approaches to the professional training of a specialist, necessary in the process of developing his creative abilities, led to the involvement of such research methods as theoretical and comparative analysis of pedagogical conceptions. Also, “case study” method was considered as one of the way for creation of choral arrangement. Results and conclusion. The discipline "Choral arrangement" is an extremely important component of the formation of the artistic personality of the future choirmaster, as it develops his musical thinking and creative abilities, most actively contributes to the disclosure of his creative potential, helps him learn a whole series of practical skills necessary for a choirmaster – the leader and artistic director of a singing group, that is, it directly affects his demand and “competitiveness” in the profession of choral master. Arranging, which allows you to transform and enrich musical works, deepen or vary their sound characteristics and emotional expressiveness, provides an opportunity for their original interpretation, is a powerful tool for the rapid progress of a musician’s creative abilities. Modern educational conditions require new methods and forms of teaching in the field of choral pedagogy, including choral arrangement. Use of the “case study” method (teaching on the example of specific situations), various experiments, online communication and an arsenal of computer technologies (variation of the composition of choral voices, creation of new timbre sounds, improvisation, multi-style arrangements, collective creativity, electronic sound processing by computer programs, etc.) will contribute to the fullest disclosure of the creative potential of choirmaster students.

In his famous play Mozart and Salieri (1832), Alexander Pushkin doubted whether it is possible to “check harmony with algebra,” and for centuries artists and scholars of art, literature in particular, were skeptical about marrying the two, asserting instead the dualistic point of view—the one that hard sciences and the Humanities belong to different, predominantly incompatible worlds. Now that empirical research methods are getting their due recognition in the spheres of literature and other media, and that the field of stylistics has also greatly developed, this volume, published within John Benjamins’ well-established Linguistic Approaches to Literature series, is really welcome. The tradition has been to see stylistics as an area of interface between language and literature. As a result, unfortunately, there are not enough studies that look at what happens with actual readers as they engage with texts, so it is really useful to have a comprehensive look at readers’ experiences with texts of various kinds. Where textbooks (e.g., Leech, Short, Semino and Culpeper, Verdonk, Burke, or Simpson, to name just a few) introduce students to the linguistic description and interpretation of textual features of literary works, Style and Reader Response instead familiarizes readers with the evidence-based approach to the real effects of literature.The issue of interaction between empirical research on literary reading and stylistics is a vital one, and the authors’ attempt to cast light on the benefits of such an approach definitely deserves attention. The book is an innovative and important contribution to the emerging paradigm within stylistics in that it grounds its discussion of literature in the responses of real respondents across media rather than in textual analysis alone aiming at pinpointing the ways in which evidence-based “insights from style and response are used to generate new stylistic models and new understandings of texts” (Bell et al. 1).As the title suggests, the chapters in this collection of eleven articles specifically address texts of different genres and modes as well as individual and collective responses thereto. Clearly, this diversity is intentional with the aim of allowing readers to get acquainted with the whole spectrum of possibilities this interdisciplinary approach holds. For those working within stylistics and/or literary studies, empirical studies of literature in particular, this volume has much to offer as most of the chapters focus not only on theoretical approaches or methods, but also, and primarily so, on presenting substantive findings on how readers confront texts as well as new interpretations of such encounters.The volume is transparent in its structure, and the general argumentation is coherent and lucidly clear. The introductory chapter by the editors previews the book’s major innovation: the attention not to the style of various texts and/or response to them per se, but rather to “the ways in which style generates response and what response can reveal about a text’s style” (Bell et al. 1), thus highlighting a clear integration of the disciplines by way of a systematic, data-driven approach to the reading of a wide range of material.Subsequently, the volume is organized into three sections which, despite the general emphasis of the collection on reader-centered matters, are arranged according to the specific subtopic investigated. The sheer number of chapters indicates that this is a broad-ranging work that brings a considerable variety of contexts and methods into dialogue with one another.The first section, “Mind,” contains four chapters that explore the reading of literature as a result of underpinning mental processes, naturally and logically linking empirical perspective with that offered by cognitive studies. Thus David Peplow and Sara Whiteley, largely relying on the conceptual approach to metaphor, report the results of a poetry discussion session by a reading group in that they convincingly demonstrate how the text itself, its author, and subsequently its readers interact, eliciting a dynamic, dialogic, and intersubjective response. Similarly, Jessica Norledge also concentrates on a group discussion as a research tool, but diversely from the previous chapter, the focus is on a dystopian narrative while readers engage with the narrator and characters to coconstruct fictional worlds and fictional minds. In the next chapter, Sam Browse, following the Text World Theory framework as well as insights from cognitive grammar, resorts to an online think-aloud protocol as his main research method, and looks at how readers build their interpretation of a sample of political writing—an unfavorably received opinion piece by Theresa May, the former British Prime Minister. Finally, Julia Vaeßen and Sven Strassen, drawing on cognitive anthropology ideas, focus their attention on the responses of readers from different subcultures to characters in fiction as well as onthe cultural models used.The second section of the volume, “Media,” includes three chapters examining the way stylistics and reader response criticism can complement each other in investigation of modes and media beyond traditional literature. In line with the title, the focus is now shifted from poetry, narrative, political writing, and children’s play in the first section to an art exhibition, hypertext fiction as well as to online news articles and blogs. In doing so, Alison Gibbons resorts to qualitative empirical methods to look not only at whether gallery visitors are conscious of the artist’s fictionality, but also at how this belief/disbelief affects their experience and emotional response. In their turn, Isabelle van der Bom, Lyle Skains, Alice Bell, and Astrid Ensslin investigate reader response to hyperlinks in digital literature (in contrast with their straightforward function in digital nonfiction). In the last chapter of this section, Martine van Driel employs interview as a research tool to cast light on readers’ different reactions to news presented through traditional online stories from their reactions to news presented as live blogs.The four chapters in the final section, “Methods,” are dedicated to methodological aspects of interdisciplinary studies and to the procedures, showing in what way different research questions are addressed with different methods (naturally having their advantages and limitations). To this end, Peter Stockwell draws on cognitive poetics and corpus linguistics approach to a poem by Thomas Hardy. In doing so, he gives solid arguments in favor of a multitooled approach to literary analysis and argues that introspection, despite certain skepticism about its validity, is nevertheless a valuable method in empirical stylistics. In the following chapter, Bronwen Thomas addresses ethical issues of using data from online sources—something researchers in the digital era are tempted to do in light of the ubiquity of social media platforms and ease of access to the data. In his turn, Hugh Escott, drawing on his experience with a literacy workshop for children on punctuation, claims that literacy-related activities are highly relevant to reader-response stylisticians. To sum up the discussion, in the postscript to the collection, Moniek M. Kuijpers reflects on empirical investigation of reading and literature, on the benefits such an approach holds, but also on the limitations that are yet to be faced and remedied.That said, the quality of the chapters in the volume is very high, and many of them would be useful for those at the interface between literary stylistics and reader response. At the same time, as the methods presented are precise and clearly described, this book may serve as a point of entry for novices in the field, thus enlarging the world of researchers working on the interaction of stylistics and literary and psychological studies, and this agenda of expanding the population of interdisciplinary researchers is clear in the choice of the chapters’ topics. To promote their viewpoint, the authors, in an engaging style and welcoming manner, explain how the seemingly incompatible research paradigms can meet to enhance the rigor of methodology and validity of findings so that new cognitive insights into a variety of texts are produced.Thus, from what really makes the book distinct from existing approaches, two features are particularly noteworthy: the attention to real readers rather than implied or ideal ones, and its highly welcoming manner of presentation when the examples in the chapters are excellent and well linked to one another, and the explanations lucid. Therefore, the volume’s significance is beyond any doubt: the book has considerable implications for further research in the field and, I am sure, will be widely discussed in professional communities. By and large, a concrete body of research on processes of reading and their outcomes has grown over the last years, and there are several international associations (e.g., the Poetics and Linguistics Association [PALA] and the International Society for the Empirical Study of Literature [IGEL from Internationale Gesellschaft für Empirische Literaturwissenschaft in German], whose division on the matter as well as potential rapprochement and collaboration Kuijpers discusses) which cater to this need. Moreover, the volume itself is a result of the 2016 conference with the same title, thus serving as a live example of how academic interaction stimulates research advancement.On a practical note, if I were ordering the volume for a university library, I would definitely consider using individual chapters as valuable course reading. Ultimately, it is absolutely possible to check harmony with algebra, and Pushkin again (in Nabokov’s translation of Eugene Onegin), contemplating on how opposites attract, writes that “[t]hey got together; wave and stone, / verse and prose, ice and flame, / were not so different from one another.” So they did in this volume—to the benefit of the Humanities.

"Beyond musical works: new perspectives on music ontology and performance What are musical works? How are they constructed in our minds? Which material things allow us to speak about them in the first place? Does a specific way of conceiving musical works limit their performative potentials? Which alternative, more productive images of musical work can be devised? Virtual Works – Actual Things addresses contemporary music ontological discourses, challenging dominant musicological accounts, questioning their authoritative foundation and moving towards dynamic perspectives devised by music practitioners and artist researchers. Specific attention is given to the relationship between the virtual multiplicities that enable the construction of an image of a musical work and the actual, concrete materials that make such a construction possible. With contributions by prominent scholars, this book is a wide-ranging and fascinating collection of essays, which will be of great interest for artistic research, contemporary musicology, music philosophy, performance studies and music pedagogy alike. Contributors: David Davies (McGill University, Montreal), Andreas Dorschel (University of the Arts Graz), Lydia Goehr (Columbia University, New York), Kathy Kiloh (OCAD University, Toronto), Jake McNulty (Columbia University, New York), Gunnar Hindrichs (University of Basel), John Rink (University of Cambridge)"

Review question/objective The objective of this systematic review is to provide a narrative summary synthesis of the quality of existing Husserlian phenomenological research studies in the health sciences. As a methodological systematic review, only studies that focus on adult patients’ experiences of preventive, screening, diagnosis, treatment or rehabilitation interventions/procedures will be considered to serve as a paradigm “case” of the use of the Husserlian phenomenological approach within the broad field of health. The review question is: What is the quality of existing Husserlian phenomenological research studies in the health sciences? The motivation for this systematic review is not to fault authors of existing Husserlian phenomenological research, but to explore the problems encountered in existing research literature, if any, and to provide guidance to authors for future health research guided by this specific philosophical perspective. In order to avoid repetition, the term ‘Husserlian phenomenological approach’ as used in the text refers to the approach described by Edmund Husserl in English translations of his own published work; or as described in English language commentaries by internationally recognized scholars; or from Husserlian phenomenological scholars including the structured framework presented by Spiegelberg. Each time the ‘content of Husserlian phenomenological research studies’ is used in the text it should be understood to mean ‘content of Husserlian phenomenological research studies as reflected in the stated philosophical perspective, research methodology, data collection methods, data analysis methods, presentation and interpretation of the results, and the conclusions’. Definition of terms: 1. Husserlian phenomenological research studies refers to primary qualitative research studies that are explicitly grounded in the work of Husserl reflected in explicit statements or descriptions by the authors. 2. Quality refers to the extent to which there is congruence between the Husserlian phenomenological approach and the content of Husserlian phenomenological research studies. These stipulative definitions are intended to preclude the need to cite the scientific literature as there is no need to demonstrate their ‘validity’ or ‘acceptability’ by the communities of scholars. TRUNCATED AT 350 WORDS.

Since the mid-2000s, cognitive science approaches have been used in biblical studies. Cognitive science came into existence in the 1950s as a reaction to the psychological behaviorism of the time, and it studies human thought processes, such as memory, learning, decision making, and social cognition, including the role of emotions. Cognitive science is multidisciplinary in nature, with contributions from linguistics, philosophy, neuroscience, experimental psychology, ethology, computer modeling, and other disciplines. It has influenced a variety of academic fields, ranging from anthropology and education to musicology and medicine. Its appearance and impact is often referred to as the “cognitive turn.” Cognitive approaches to religion examine cross-culturally recurrent religious thought and behavior from the perspective of cognitive science. Cognitive approaches to religion, in turn, offer important insights and theories for the cognitive scientific study of biblical texts and traditions. Three research areas can be identified that especially influenced the emergence of cognitive science approaches to biblical studies: (1) A considerable part of cognitive research on religion can be linked to the program called cognitive science of religion (CSR), which started in the 1990s. In the beginning, CSR focused mainly on god concepts and rituals, with a strong emphasis on the evolved cognitive structure of the human mind. New research areas of CSR include the role of religion in social cooperation, experimental studies in ethnography, discussions and applications of the theory of cultural evolution, quantitative studies of large-scale historical processes, and computational models of religious thought and behavior. While some scholars have argued that religion is a by-product of cognitive mechanisms (such as traits underlying social cooperation) that evolved previously for other purposes (the so-called by-product hypothesis), others see religion as an evolutionary adaptation. (2) The neuroscientific study of religious experience started in the 1980s and gained momentum with the rapid development of new neuroimaging technologies in the 1990s. Work on religious experience in biblical studies draws on insights from this area. (3) Finally, the field of cognitive linguistics also started in the 1980s and examines the role of the human body in shaping human thought and language. Biblical scholars have drawn especially on cognitive poetics and conceptual metaphor theory. In this article we will first discuss overviews of cognitive science approaches in biblical studies. Second, major contributions to the cognitive science of religion and conceptual metaphor theory will be presented, with an emphasis on publications that have exerted an influence on biblical scholars. This part will also include cognitive studies of ancient religions outside biblical studies. Third, cognitive science approaches to various research questions and topics in biblical studies will be discussed, including Jewish and early Christian history, memory and transmission, ritual, miracle and magic, ethics and morality, religious experience, theological and Christological concepts, applications of conceptual metaphor theory, the use of computational modeling, and other exegetical topics.

When computers convert music scores to sounding music, performances void of musical expression typically emerge, mostly perceived as musical disasters. This is a striking illustration of the importance of the contributions of musicians. Excellent tools for exploring these contributions are synthesized performances and/or processing of real performances. In the 1970s, the KTH music group started to formulate rules for music performance, now integrated into the KTH Director Musices performance grammar. Some principles underlying its performance rules can be identified: (1) marking of phrase structure, (2) increasing contrasts along acoustic parameters, and (3) emphasizing important and/or less expected notes. These principles can be observed also in phonetics and speech prosody. Also the acoustic codes used for these principles in music performance are similar to those used in speech. Just as pitch is raised in agitated speech, singers have recently been found to increase contrast along the pitch dimension by sharpening the peak note in agitated phrases. In a recent experiment, audio processing software was used to quasi-correct the intonation of the peak tone in a handful of examples sung by a professional baritone singer. A listening test indicated that the sharpening added to the expressivity of the performance.

The analysis of theoretical sources on the research problem showed that the concept of a multivariate career is still quite young and has not been fully explored, which opens up a fairly large range of promising areas of study. Traditional and multivariate careers can be studied using social ideas, which will help to more accurately and better understand these phenomena. And it is the social ideas of students, as a special socio-psychological and age category, that will be able to provide a clear vision and understanding of the chosen issue. Theoretical approaches to the study of social ideas in domestic and foreign literature were considered, the phenomenon of «career» in modern research was characterized, a program and methods of empirical research were developed, and the results of the study were analyzed and interpreted. It has been scientifically proven that students' multivariate careers mean that they strive to develop not only in one area, but also in several different directions. Among the students of the «Economics » direction, the following areas were identified: «active and active career», «free career», «career associated with starting one’s own business», «career involving continuous development», «integration of lifestyles», «career, associated with risks», «hard career». In the course of conducting an empirical study of students’ social ideas about traditional and multivariate careers, it was possible to develop a program and methods of empirical research; for this purpose, the method of subjective scaling and the «Career Anchors» technique of E. Schein were taken, and the Kruskal-Wallis H-criterion, U-Mann-Whitney test and factor analysis. It was found that, in general, students view modern careers as more multivariate, and also that the social ideas of students in various fields of study about a promising career actually have a certain content specificity. The students studied have the idea that real careers have changed and are still constantly changing due to the demands of the modern world.