The Global Web of National Water Security

Mental Distress and Resource Insecurity in the Kingdom of Tonga After the 2022 Volcanic Eruption: Associations of Water and Food Insecurity With Mental Distress.

Household food insecurity (FI) and water insecurity (WI) are prevalent public health issues that can co-occur. Few studies have concurrently assessed their associations with health outcomes, particularly among people living with HIV. We aimed to investigate the associations between FI and WI and how they relate to physical and mental health. Food-insecure adult smallholder farmers living with HIV in western Kenya were recruited to participate in a cluster-randomized controlled trial of a multisectoral agricultural and asset loan intervention. We used baseline data on experiences of FI (using the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale, range: 0-27) and WI (using a modified scale developed for this region, range: 0-51) in the prior month (n=716). Outcomes included probable depression (using the Hopkins Symptom Checklist), fatigue and diarrhea in the prior month, and overall mental and physical health (using the Medical Outcomes Study HIV Health Survey, range: 0-100). We first assessed Pearson correlations between FI, WI, and sociodemographic characteristics. We then developed 3 regressions for each health outcome (control variables and FI; control variables and WI; control variables, FI, and WI) and compared model fit indexes. Correlations between household FI, WI, and wealth were low, meaning they measure distinct constructs. FI and WI were associated with numerous physical and mental health outcomes; accounting for both resource insecurities typically provided the best model fit. For instance, when controlling for FI, each 10-point higher WI score was associated with a 6.42-point lower physical health score (P<0.001) and 2.92 times greater odds of probable depression (P<0.001). Assessing both FI and WI is important for correctly estimating their relation with health outcomes. Interventions that address food- and water-related issues among persons living with HIV concurrently will likely be more effective at improving health than those addressing a single resource insecurity. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02815579.

The concept of water security has progressed from a narrow emphasis on water supply infrastructure, primarily viewed through an engineering lens, to a comprehensive perspective encompassing technological, economic, environmental, and governance dimensions. The evolution of the water security concept, as evidenced in the relevant literature briefly reviewed in this paper, signifies a significant shift. This shift is toward a more comprehensive consideration of diverse values, stakeholders, and viewpoints by representing in an equitable manner as possible human-centric and ecosystem-based priorities. It also underscores the pressing need for transdisciplinary and more integrated approaches, as the challenges in representing the water security notion more effectively continue to mount. In response to these pressing challenges, the Global Climate Hub (GCH) initiative, operating under the UN Sustainable Development Solutions Network, employs interdisciplinary approaches comprising optimal dynamic combinations of technologies, economic analysis, and policies to devise national and regional water security strategies through inclusion approaches with relevant actors and stakeholders.

Water security is a central environmental issue at the global level for economical, political and health consequences in the economies of developing countries. The concept of virtual water is a new tool in water resources management. Water crises are a global problem of long-term economic repercussions and an unbalanced conflict between the supply and demand sides in needing water, which leads to imbalance in the water balance structure and consequently in water policies. And it is particularly important for effective water governance(water management, and its governance) through water politicization, the use virtual water and dealing with water as an economic commodity rather than a free one. The analysts and economic researchers are calling for the era of water in the third millennium instead of the era of oil that characterized at previous years. The research concluded that, in economic terms, water is expected to become a commodity sold and bought as any economic commodity. Water security should be studied from the point of view that relates the problem of water through three dimensions. The first one is related to climate variables and the second to the mismanagement and planning of water resources and the last dimension is the regional because the water sources originate from outside the Iraqi borders. Finally, the research recommends the necessity to move away from linking water with political positions and politics because politics is a rapidly changing world. As the countries of the upstream from the strategic perspective to apply the concept of political economic works to trade bartered oil for water and internationalization of the issue to take a regional dimension and internationally revealing the seriousness of the water situation in Iraq.

Background: Water demands in South Africa are rising, yet there is a lack of frameworks addressing sustainable water security at the local level. This gap, compounded by limited empirical evidence, challenges efforts to enhance water security. Aim: The article assesses water security and proposes a localised and adaptive framework for long-term water security at the household level in South Africa, aligning with sustainable development and integrated water resource management principles. Methods: Fieldwork, based on mixed methods approach, was conducted and a review of relevant literature was undertaken to identify fundamental dimensions of water security. Results: Critical elements influencing water security (viz. grouped into five dimensions: economic, social, technical, environmental, and institutional) were observed. An approach, based on the critical elements pertaining to water security, was developed to address the relevant dimensions, offering an integrated approach to enhancing water security. Conclusion: The proposed framework advances an understanding of water security by offering a novel and actionable approach that can be adapted to local contexts in South Africa (and possibly in other countries too). It emphasises the importance of multi-dimensional solutions to enhance the resilience of local water supply systems. Contribution: This article fills a significant gap in local-level water security frameworks, providing a practical model for policymakers and stakeholders to implement sustainable water security strategies in South Africa.

Water security is a key governance challenge especially in relation to transboundary rivers. While the literature elaborates on the water security concept, there is very little on how to operationalize it in the transboundary context. Hence, this paper addresses the question: How can the governance of transboundary rivers be operationalized to deal with national water security concerns? It uses a literature review and a case study focusing on dams in the Mekong tributaries, namely the Sesan, part of the 3S Basin, in Vietnam and Cambodia. The paper describes the damming process in the 3S Basin and how it threatens water security for downstream states in terms of securing the flow, volume, quality, space, and the temporal variations of the rivers and the livelihoods of river dependent communities. It examines how the Mekong River Commission (MRC) members address these issues, balance their interests and secure the free flow of the Mekong River and its tributaries. It concludes that the MRC Agreement of 1995 is an inadequate mechanism to regulate the developments of hydrological infrastructure on the shared international tributaries, and that further operationalization of the concept of water security is necessary to enable the improvement of existing cooperative regulations and mechanisms.

Aggregating measures that capture multiple aspects of water security in a single or small number of indices can act as a powerful tool to identify areas susceptible to water insecurity. Proposed Rural Water Insecurity Index is based on water supply and demand dimensions, and adaptive capacity to assess the ability of communities to cope with prevailing water insecurity. Spatial distribution of water insecurity presents wide variability across the district and demonstrates how factors like surface water supply distribution, groundwater withdrawal, sanitation, irrigation coverage, asset ownership influence water security of a particular rural area at a specific time. The insecurity matrix reveals that the scale of adaptive capacity plays a vital role in shifting the scale of water insecurity by negating the impacts of supply- and demand-driven insecurity. The impacts are found to be severe for the poor who live in vulnerable areas including mountains and forests, are dependent on natural resource-based livelihood and groundwater to meet basic needs, own little land or other physical assets and have low education and skills. The present study offers valuable guidance to the policymakers, providing insights as to where more targeted research or policy interventions can address current water insecurity challenges and reduce future risks.

In this work, we propose a new approach to diagnose if a water allocation scheme is compatible with long-term water security at the catchment scale, and suggest steps to achieve such compatibility. We argue that when the remaining flow of a river after upstream withdrawals is not sufficient to safeguarding ecological river functions, the basin is at extreme risk of water scarcity, which indicates that the water management is failing. To test this, we analysed the water scarcity risks and the safeguarded environmental flows (e-flows) in 277 basins across a wide range of hydro-climatic conditions in Chile (17–55°S). For each basin, water scarcity risks were assessed based on water stress indices (WSIs, computed as the ratio of withdrawals to water availability), considering two water-use scenarios: (i) WSImax, where total withdrawals correspond to the maximum consumptive water allowed by the law, i.e., where only the e-flows protected by law remain in the river, and (ii) WSIalloc, where total withdrawals correspond to the actual allocated consumptive water uses within the basins. Further, we evaluated the adequacy of the water management system to protect ecological river functions by contrasting the e-flows protected in Chile with those safeguarded in six other countries.The water allocation system in Chile incorporated the protection of minimum e-flows in 2005 and established that these do not exceed 20% of the mean annual streamflow, except in some exceptional cases. This upper limit is consistently lower than the e-flows safeguarded in other countries, where 20%–80% of the mean annual streamflow are protected. This turns out in WSImax values between 80% and 100% in all basins, well above the threshold associated with over-committed basins under extreme risk of water scarcity (70% typically). When moving from the legally allowed to the actually allocated water use scenario, we found contrasting results: about 70% of the basins show low water scarcity risk (WSIalloc <40%), while an 18% have WSIalloc above 100%, indicating the allocation is going beyond current law limits and even beyond physical limits.Our results reveal that the link between e-flows, water allocation and water security has not been adequately incorporated in the current law. E-flows stipulated by law are insufficient to fulfil environmental requirements, while placing the basins under extreme risk of water scarcity if the total allowed withdrawals were exerted. To move towards a system that can effectively achieve long-term water security, we recommend: (i) To define tolerable water scarcity risks for basins, considering environmental requirements. (ii) To translate those risks into measurable basin indices to measure water security, such as the WSI. (iii) To set maximum water use limits (or minimum e-flows) within the basins that are compatible to the water security goals. If, under current and projected water availability conditions, the existing withdrawals exceed these limits, water managers should be able to adapt total consumption to the required limits.

Virtual water ‘flows’ of the Nile Basin, 1998–2004: A first approximation and implications for water security

Testing the theoretical similarities between food and water insecurity: Buffering hypothesis and effects on mental wellbeing

Paddy water managements for diffuse nitrogen and phosphorus pollution control in China: A comprehensive review and emerging prospects

This research examines Pakistan's water crisis and its impact on national security, highlighting key factors such as population growth, climate change, and inadequatewater resource management. The article emphasises the urgent need for thorough qualitative changes and improved infrastructure to guarantee sustainable access to clean water. This research employs a qualitative approach to examine the complex relationship between regional relations and water security, with a focuson Pakistan’s transboundary water challenges. Through securitisation theory, the study aims to analyse how water scarcity is framed as a water security issue, exploring the securitisation process and its implications for national security. Utilizing an explanatory research design and document analysis, this study comprehensively assesses both internal and external water security threats to Pakistan’s national security. Additionally, it highlights the importance of regional cooperation and diplomacy in managing shared water resources. Addressing the water crisis is an environmental concern anda vitalnational securityimperative. A comprehensive strategy encompassing legislative changes, technical advancements, and international collaboration is required to mitigate the threat and protect Pakistan's stability.Keywords: National Security, Hydro-politics, Securitisation, Water Crisis, Regional Security.

Analysis of the evolution of water culture and water security in the Weihe River Basin over a 100 year-period

The equitable and sustainable management of rivers is among the biggest environmental challenges of the Anthropocene. As sources of fresh water (itself essential for nearly all human enterprise), energy production, wastewater conveyance, and diverse cultural uses and values, rivers are vitally important ecosystems (Brauman et al., 2014; Yeakley et al., 2016). However, the intense exploitation of these services, combined with hydrological shifts from a changing climate and extensive management to reduce flood risk, has led to widespread declines in their ecosystem condition and in riverine biodiversity (Albert et al., 2021; Vörösmarty et al., 2010). With multiple additional stressors on rivers like invasive alien species and water quality impacts from upland land use change, the scientific community has focused on biotic indices for monitoring riverine health. The use of such indices to describe the ecological condition of a river system, termed bioassessment or biomonitoring, is intended to provide an integrated perspective of the multiple potential stressors acting simultaneously on the whole ecosystem (Feio et al., 2021). By directly assessing the diversity and abundance of focal taxonomic groups, bioassessment programs provide important perspective into the quality and potential service delivery of a river system, but also a proximate measure of the local state of biodiversity. Given trends over time, such data can answer important questions about the efficacy of conservation policy, ecological restoration, and the management of biodiversity, supporting conservation evidence approaches. Originating in the mid-to-late 20th century, the assessment of rivers via biological indices became codified into environmental laws and policies in countries like the United States, Canada, New Zealand, and the governing body of the European Union. This created the opportunity for regional and global assessments of river ecosystem health. While the operational bioassessment programs in many wealthier, industrialized countries have supported important research for decades (e.g., Miltner & Rankin, 1998), industrializing, historically marginalized nations (also known as the Global South) are important “blind spots” for global freshwater conservation, with fewer available data (Alahuhta et al., 2019). This is despite the fact that many of these nations contain biodiversity hotspots, and will see growing ecological impacts from sweeping infrastructure development plans and growing societal demands for resources in coming decades (e.g., Ng et al., 2020). Furthermore, the general scientific community may have limited access to available biomonitoring data from Global South countries due to its marked reliance on the English language, a factor that greatly limits global conservation applications (Amano et al., 2021). The research paper by Feio et al. (2022) in this issue describes an exciting and important effort to collate river bioassessment data worldwide, with special attention to available datasets in the Global South. Importantly, this undertaking involved co-authors from nations like China, Nepal, Brazil, Bolivia, Nigeria, and South Africa. By gathering available bioassessment data on macroinvertebrates and fishes from 45 countries on six continents, they built a unique database with coverage from regions that are under-represented in the scientific literature. Feio and colleagues reclassified indicator metrics from these diverse bioassessment protocols into three broad categories: Good, Impaired, and Severely Impaired. Importantly, Feio and colleagues also assessed the degree of influence of social and ecological variables on the proportion of survey sites with different condition rankings for each region. Among a multitude of thought-provoking findings, several are worthy of emphasis here, and call for further inquiry by the larger freshwater conservation community. First, Feio and colleagues' work corroborates the contemporary understanding that freshwater ecosystems worldwide are intensely threatened with the sobering finding that at most half of river systems are currently in good ecological condition according to macroinvertebrate indices, and even less than that when considering fishes. Furthermore, nearly one in three river systems were found to be severely impaired. Lower quality ratings among fish-derived indices were more frequent in heavily dammed rivers, even when invertebrate-derived indices indicated higher quality, highlighting the importance of connectivity for declining fish species at the global scale. Notably, biological condition among both sets of metrics was more closely tied to variables pertaining to environmental legislation than to the duration of industrialization in a region. This lends credence to the efficacy of environmental legislation and may suggest that large-scale restoration projects in damaged riversheds may yield tangible ecological benefits. Land management variables like watershed forest cover and freshwater protected areas also correlated with higher quality. This, in turn, speaks to the effecticacy of forest conservation, upland management, and strategic habitat protetion in freshwater biodiversity conservation. Feio and colleagues also found especially low biological quality in arid and semi-arid regions, which speaks both to the hydrological sensitivity of freshwater ecosystems in dry landscapes, but also to the potential impact of anthropogenic water demand on river systems. The increasing severity of droughts and rising water demand in many drier regions puts additional pressure on extent riverine ecosystems. The role of such competing demands for water in biodiversity declines is well studied for basins in wealthier countries like Australia, but may have different dynamics in understudied regions in the Global South, whose economic, cultural, and ecological contexts could be vastly different. Increased attention to the interactions of biodiversity conservation and national water security will be important in confronting these challenging socio-ecological circumstances (van Rees et al., 2019). This work provides much-needed support for the efficacy of environmental legislation in protecting riverine ecosystems, which we may hope will dispel doubts about its utility in sustainable water governance. Furthermore, Feio et al. (2022)’s great effort toward gaining ecological insights from the Global South should serve as an example to future studies seeking a global perspective in biodiversity conservation. An overdependence and overemphasis on a few wealthy countries leads to a highly distorted vision of the world's ecosystems and sustainability challenges. Further efforts to counteract this bias are commendable and necessary for equitable and effective conservation science. Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.

Water-related risks threaten society at the local, national and global scales in our inter-connected and rapidly changing world. Most of the world's poor are deeply water insecure and face intolerable water-related risks associated with complex hydrology. Most of the world's wealthy face lower water-related risks and less complex hydrology. This inverse relationship between hydrological complexity and wealth contributes to a divided world. This must be addressed if global water security is to be achieved. Using a risk-based framework provides the potential to link the current policy-oriented discourse on water security to a new and rigorous science-based approach to the description, measurement, analysis and management of water security. To provide the basis for this science-based approach, we propose an encompassing definition rooted in risk science: water security is a tolerable level of water-related risk to society. Water security policy questions need to be framed so that science can marshal interdisciplinary data and evidence to identify solutions. We join a growing group of scientists in asserting a bold vision for science leadership, calling for a new and comprehensive understanding of the planet's water system and society's water needs.