The Task Bind: Explaining Gender Differences in Managerial Tasks and Performance

While South Korea has experienced remarkable economic growth, it still ranks near the bottom globally in terms of gender equality. For instance, the number of female leaders, particularly in senior positions, remains significantly lower than that of their male counterparts at all levels of Korean society. Several studies suggest that this discrepancy is not due to women being less capable or performing less effectively as leaders than men, but rather stems from deeply ingrained social stereotypes surrounding women and their leadership abilities. Sex stereotyping involves generalizing characteristics of an entire group of women onto an individual simply because she is a woman. Stereotypes about ‘what women are like’ or ‘what women should be like’ can lead people to believe that women are unsuitable for leadership positions or to denigrate women leaders who defy gender stereotypes. These gender stereotypes can significantly impede women from attaining leadership positions and hinder their effective performance as leaders. Despite the rising participation of women in the workforce and the increasing number of women leaders in Korea, there remains a notable gap in research on women's leadership. Specifically, the majority of studies on women leaders have been conducted in non-management fields, such as women's studies, highlighting a crucial need for attention from the management community. This study aims to stimulate interest within the Korean business administration community in women's leadership and gender stereotypes. It seeks to accomplish this by thoroughly identifying recent empirical findings that address stereotypes associated with women's leadership. To achieve this objective, the study begins by scrutinizing theoretical frameworks elucidating the impact of sex stereotypes on women's leadership. Subsequently, we delve into global research trends on sex stereotypes and women's leadership, with a specific emphasis on empirical articles published in prominent international journals within the organizational behavior field over the last decade. A distinct chapter is dedicated to empirical papers published in South Korea. Finally, practical suggestions and future research directions are proposed.

This article explores adversity and the lived experiences of Black women in higher education leadership. Using phenomenology, this study specifically explores how Black women in higher education leadership navigate the adverse challenges of intersectionality, stereotype threat, and tokenism. Black women in leadership undergo adversity including limited role models, the concrete ceiling, and the intersectionality of racism, sexism, and ageism, as well as tokenism. The current findings validate that Black women in higher education leadership experience adversity. Some of the more salient codes that emerged were discrimination such as racism, sexism, ageism, and the intersection of these challenges with identity, cultural diversity and belonging, resilience, and leadership callings. Referred to as “superwomen,” Black women are resilient and strong. The results of this study reveal that Black women use adversity as fuel, thus helping them develop the necessary skills to prepare them for leadership. Their strength through adversity is driven by the resilience that has manifested as motivation factors such as family and relationships, mentorship and sponsorship, as well as the support of cultural identity and diversity. The current findings support the notion that adversity shapes Black women into leaders with an emphasis on higher education leadership.

Achievement gaps between social groups may result from stereotype threat effects but also from stereotype lift effects—the performance boost caused by the awareness that an outgroup is negatively stereotyped. We examined stereotype lift and threat effects in the motor domain and investigated their mediation by task involvement and self-confidence, measured by heart rate reactivity and self-reported indices. Males and females performed a balance task about which negative stereotypes about either males or females were given. No gender information was given in a control condition. Results showed no stereotype threat but a stereotype lift effect, participants performing significantly better after negative outgroup stereotypes were explicitly linked to performance on the balance task compared to the control condition. Concerning males, this effect was mediated by higher self-confidence and task involvement. The implications of these results for understanding the gender inequalities in the motor domain are discussed.

This study explores the leadership role of women in da'wah with a focus on representation and transformational leadership. This study uses desk research methods to analyse relevant literature, with the aim of understanding how the representation of women in various forms of da'wah communication-such as lectures, writings, and social media-can influence people's perceptions of women's leadership capabilities. The research findings show that strong and positive representations of women in da'wah can change people's perceptions and open up opportunities for women to take on leadership roles. Key challenges faced in creating space for women's representation and leadership include persisting patriarchal norms, resistance from conservative parties, and limited access and resources. This analysis highlights that women's transformational leadership, characterised by a clear vision, attention to the individual, intellectual stimulation, and idealised influence, has great potential to bring about positive change in religious communities. The impact of this transformational leadership includes changing gender perceptions and stereotypes, increasing community participation, empowering individuals, and enhancing innovation and creativity. By addressing these challenges and supporting women's transformational leadership, religious communities can become more inclusive, just and dynamic. This research confirms the importance of strong representation and support for women in da'wah leadership to achieve significant social and cultural change.

Stereotype threat theory (STT) presents a potential explanation for differences in achievement in math and science for women. Specifically, STT postulates that the perceived risk of confirming a negative stereotype about an individual’s identity group acts as a psychological burden that negatively impacts performance. This study is the third in a series of studies examining the impact of ST on gender differences in science. The present study tested the impact of stereotype threat (ST) on gender differences in biology achievement, self-efficacy, motivation, and domain identification using a four-group, quasi-experimental design. 83 introductory-level college biology students were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 ST conditions including an explicit ST condition, an implicit ST condition, a reverse ST condition, and a nullified ST condition. Results indicated that there were no gender differences by ST condition; however, overall, the women identified more with the field.

This research aims to examine and analyse some of the problems that women in leadership positions face in South African higher education. Women have been denied leadership positions in higher education. This became increasingly clear in developing countries such asSouth Africa. However, in recent years, there has been a great increase in the achievement of women in leadership roles in higher education.. South African higher education has undergone a gender stereotype reversal, largely due to an increase in women in leadership positionssuch as vice-chancellors, rectors, deans, and department heads. This study contends that being a female does not preclude successful leadership in South African higher education. A qualitative content analysis was utilised to guide this work when reviewing and analysing current scholarly literature such as articles, book chapters, and theses. To build a coding system and present the findings of this paper, the following themes were identified:(1) challenges women face in leadership positions in South African higher education; (2) the influence of patriarchy in leadership positions in higher education; (3) Influence of patriarchy in leadership positions in higher education; (4) Redressing the challenges faced by women in higher education. The findings of this paper revealed that being a woman is not a barrier to success in leadership, but they also highlighted that women continue to face basic problems in academic leadership. This article concludes by claiming that gender stereotypes, gender inequity, and discrimination against women in leadership roles are issues preventing women from achieving their career progression goals in academia.

The purpose of this thesis was to further our understanding of the role of distributed cognition (with the use of pen and paper) in defusing the impact of evaluative pressure caused by priming gender-related stereotypes about girls’ maths performance and performance-approach goals on mental arithmetic performance. Interactivity is the transferring of internal cognitive process (e.g., computing simple maths tasks) to the outside world by using different tools (e.g., pen and paper). Some members of social groups (e.g., women) may not perform well in mathematics after negative stereotypes about their academic performance in the mathematical domain, which is known as stereotype threat. Stereotype threat is the risk of confirming a negative stereotype expectation about one’s group. Another decrement to performance may be caused by achievement goals, such as performance-approach goals. Performance-approach goals are linked to normative behaviour where the individual is motivated by outperforming others in academic performance. Negative stereotyping and performance-approach goals can generate anxiety that deplete existing working memory resources. However, some of these working memory limitations can be compensated by off-loading the internal cognitive process to the external environment. We tested whether off-loading could buffer the effects of stereotype threat and performance-approach goals in four experiments. In Studies 1 (16-year-old girls) and 2 (female university students), participants carried out mental arithmetic tasks in the stereotype threat condition or control, crossed with interactivity or no interactivity. There was increased maths performance (accuracies) with interactivity, confirming existing literature. Additionally, the solution latencies were improved when the mental arithmetic tasks were in a known format. However, when the maths tasks were in a novel format, the participants of the second study became slower because of speed-accuracy trade-off. The first two studies found no statistically significant effects of stereotype threat on maths performance. Nevertheless, working memory in participants in Study 1 was depleted in the stereotype threat condition, but it did not affect mental arithmetic performance. Finally, the participants in the interactive conditions in Study 2 had a reduction of their state maths anxiety levels measured at the end of the experiment. Studies 3 (Pilot Study) and 4 focused on achievement goals and their differing effects on working memory. Female university students carried out modular arithmetic tasks in a performance-approach goal or mastery-approach goal condition crossed with interactivity or no interactivity. Performance-approach goal endorsement hampered cognitive performance, as measured by maths accuracy in Study 3, but not in Study 4. These findings were extended in Study 4 where these negative effects were reduced with the help of interactivity. Across both studies, individuals in the mastery-approach goal condition had a performance drop in the interactive condition (Study 3 and 4). Thus, interactivity did not benefit the cognitive performance of these participants. Finally, Study 4 reported higher maths anxiety levels for the individuals in the performance-approach condition. However, the increased maths anxiety levels were not reduced with the help of distributed cognition. Reasons for the findings and future implications will be discussed.

Stereotype threat refers to the fear of being judged based on negative stereotypes about the performance of a certain group one identifies with. Numerous published studies have found that stereotype threat might lower mathematics test performance among women. However, many studies used suboptimal designs and analyses; the literature might be subject to publication bias; and the cross-cultural generalizability of the effect remains unknown. This registered replication report describes the result of eight direct replications (total N = 1502) of a representative stereotype-threat study by Johns et al. (2005), who found that threatened women (but not men) underperform when they are confronted with a mathematics test that is presented to measure gender differences, and that this effect can be alleviated by altering test instructions. A multilevel analysis showed no significant interaction effect between stereotype-threat condition and gender, and only an observed gender gap on the mathematics test, with women performing worse than men (d = -0.37; 95%CI[-0.49; -0.25]). The stereotype-threat effect among women was virtually null and not significant (N = 822, d = -0.006; 95% CI[-0.15; 0.14]), and considerably smaller than the original study (N = 45, d = -0.82; 95 %CI[-1.45; -0.18]). Secondary analyses yielded a main effect of gender composition and a random effect of lab, but neither variable affected the interaction between stereotype threat and gender. The current results fail to replicate the stereotype-threat effect by Johns et al. (2005), hence casting doubt on the generalizability of the effect of stereotype threat on women’s mathematics performance.

As an important pole in the labor market, women play an important role in family, labor market and society. They undertake the important tasks of intellectual contribution, physical contribution and social capital contribution in technological innovation work. Innovation is the first and foremost power to lead development, and is bound to become state will and social mainstream. However, how to trigger innovation and how to make innovation drive social development have become priorities in domestic academic and practical areas. The advancement of social technological innovation is often the result of mutual promotion of basic and applied sciences. Basic sciences include mathematics, physics, life science, medicine, chemistry, information science, and so on, and applied sciences include mechanical and vehicle engineering, energy and mining engineering, chemical engineering, metallurgy and materials engineering, information and electronic engineering, etc.Under the social construction of gender stereotype, female default image has conflicts and inconsistency with exceptional female innovators. Owing to these conflicts and inconsistency, female innovators lack identity legitimacy and role consistency in their innovative careers, leading to identity crisis. This, in turn, is causing recognition bias, cognitive bias, promotion and career risks, and then is shaping the pressure of public opinions inside and outside the innovation team. In this research, the situation is locked in the context of technological innovation, the female innovators are taken as the research object and the stereotype is used as the carrier. By a literature review of identity of consistency, a lack of fitness and legitimacy, backlash, double evaluation bias and the orientation of public opinions within the work, it can help to construct real organizational situation which female innovators face and arouse public attention from female innovators. Thus, it can explore the impact of stereotype on female innovators in this context, and systematically analyze the threats of female innovators in the process of technological innovation. On the basis of admitting threats, it puts forward that gender stereotype does not mean stereotype threat. Firstly, femininity allows female innovators to have contrast effects and get more tolerance. Technology innovation once becomes successful, it will make people form a larger contrast to low expectations and increase cognitive shocks to other people, thereby being conducive to the establishment of the images of female innovators. Even if the end result is a failure, people will also be more likely to be tolerant of women. Secondly, in the context of team cooperation and collaborative trend in technological innovation, it requires women’s ability to communicate and cooperate. Relational female innovators’ involvement in innovation teams can make role congruency and legitimacy be more likely to be recognized. Thirdly, as a defensive guarantee, marriage can enable female innovators to obtain their spouses’ information resources and social network resources, and also obtain support, trust and security from the marital relationship. Fourthly, female innovators have more social identities for role adjustment. Female innovators have both social and family identities, and these dual identities can be transferred and be supplemented by resources. If they want to avoid the identity inconsistency of innovators, they can initiate positive identity characteristics of other identities and highlight their positive self traits, making equal, independent and self-respecting women gain recognition from others. These can help gender stereotype threat to be intervened, and even will be development opportunities and favorable conditions for female innovators. As the pioneering attempt to use female innovators as the object in domestic innovation, this paper takes the gender stereotype of female innovators as the carrier, makes a systematic literature review of female, gender stereotype and so on in the context of technological innovation, and thereby deeply analyzes gender topic and gender effects in technological innovation research, to provide more research and reference at theory and practice levels for humanistic view of innovation theory and the overall development of female innovators in innovation object.

The worry or concern over confirming negative gender group stereotypes, called stereotype threat, is one explanation for women’s worldwide underrepresentation in undergraduate science classes and majors. But how does stereotype threat translate into fewer women motivated for science? In this quantitative study with a sample from the US, we use Expectancy Value Theory to examine whether and how stereotype threat concerns might influence women’s science identification. To do this, we collected survey data from 388 women enrolled in introductory physics (male-dominated) and biology (female-dominated) undergraduate laboratory classes at three universities. We examined multiple indirect effect paths through which stereotype threat could be associated with science identity and the associated future motivation to engage in scientific research. In addition to replicating established expectancy-value theory motivational findings, results support the novel prediction that one route through which stereotype threat negatively impacts women’s science identity is via effects on perceptions about the communal utility value of science. Especially among women in physics who expressed greater stereotype threat concerns than women in biology, science identification was lower to the extent that stereotype threat reduced how useful science was seen for helping other people and society. Implications for ways to create an inclusive learning context that combats stereotype threat concerns and broadens undergraduate women’s participation in science are discussed.

This study explores the representation of gender and social class stereotypes in The Hunger Games: Catching Fire. The data were collected by analyzing key scenes and dialogues in the movie, focusing on instances that reflect stereotypes. The analysis employed theories of gender and social class stereotypes to examine how these stereotypes are represented and portrayed within the main characters, Katniss Everdeen, President Snow, and Plutarch. The findings reveal that gender stereotypes are more dominant than social class stereotypes in the film. The main female character subverts traditional gender roles, displaying strength and independence in contrast to the conventional portrayal of women as weak and reliant on men. Additionally, social class stereotypes are depicted through discrimination and prejudice against lower-class characters. This research aims to enhance readers’ critical understanding of gender and social class representations, promote gender equality, and encourage respect for social diversity.

تحقیق حاضر با هدف تحلیل روابط بین فرهنگ مدرسه و انسجام سازمانی با عملکرد مدیران در پاسخگویی به نیازهای محیطی با نقش میانجی تعهد اخلاقی و کارآمدی جمعی در مدرسه به اجرا درآمد. این تحقیق از نظر هدف از نوع تحقیقات کاربردی و از نظر گردآوری داده‌ها و کنترل متغیرها توصیفی از نوع همبستگی می‌باشد. جامعه آماری پژوهش حاضر شامل کلیه مدیران متوسطه دوره اول و دوم شهر ارومیه به تعداد 1200 نفر می باشد که از بین آنها تعداد 300 نفر با بهره گیری از جدول مورگان و به روش نمونه گیری طبقه ای نسبی به عنوان نمونه انتخاب گردید. ابزار گرداوری داده‌ها پرسشنامه‌های استاندارد ) می‌باشد. روایی پرسشنامه‌ها به وسیله تحلیل عاملی تأییدی مورد تأیید قرار گرفتند و پایایی پرسشنامه به روش آلفای کرونباخ برای متغیرهای پژوهش به صورت فرهنگ سازمانی92/0، انسجام مدرسه80/0،کارآمدی گروهی 81/0، تعهد اخلاقی93/0 و عملکرد81/0 بدست آمد که به لحاظ آماری قابل قبول می‌باشد. به منظور بررسی روابط علی بین متغیرها از روش مدل‌یابی معادلات ساختاری به روش تحلیل مسیر با استفاده از نرم افزار spss, lisrelاستفاده شد. نتایج نشان داد بین بین فرهنگ مدرسه و انسجام سازمانی با پاسخگویی مدیران به نیازهای محیطی با نقش میانجی تعهد اخلاقی و کارآمدی جمعی یک رابطه ساختاری مثبت وجود دارد و عوامل سازمانی هم بصورت مستقیم و هم بصورت غیر مستقیم، از طریق تعهد اخلاقی و کارامدی گروهی توان پیش بینی عملکرد مدیران در پاسخگویی به نیازهای محیطی را دارد.

Stereotype threat refers to the concern that is experienced when a stigmatized individual feels at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about his/her group (Steele & Aronson, 1995). Although a multitude of research demonstrates that threat debilitates performance in stereotyped domains, little is known about how stereotype threat produces this debilitating effect on performance. The current research focuses on the potential role of motivation in producing these effects. More specifically, the experiments presented here test Jamieson and Harkins's (2007) mere effort account, which argues that stereotype threat motivates participants to want to perform well, which potentiates prepotent responses. If the prepotent response is correct, performance is facilitated. If incorrect, and participants do not know, or lack the knowledge or time required for correction, performance is debilitated. Each of the experiments in this research examines gender-math stereotypes, and indexes performance using problems taken from the quantitative section of the GRE general test. The GRE quantitative test includes two types of problems: solve problems, which require the solution of an equation; and comparison problems, which require the use of logic and estimation. Research shows that test-takers' prepotent tendency on math problems is to apply a solving approach (i.e., use known formulas and equations to compute an answer) (e.g., Gallagher et al., 2000). Consistent with mere effort predictions, Experiments 1 and 2 demonstrate that, regardless of problem difficulty, threatened participants perform better than controls on solve problems (prepotent response correct), but worse than controls on comparison problems (prepotent response incorrect). Experiment 3 shows that a simple instruction as to the correct solution approach eliminates the performance deficit on comparison problems. Stone and McWhinnie (2008) argue that although motivation may account for performance under blatant (i.e., explicit) threat, working memory interference accounts for performance under subtle threat (e.g., solo status). Experiment 4 examined whether the motivation-based, mere effort explanation generalizes across different types of stereotype threat. Females completed GRE-Q problems under subtle threat, and the results replicated those observed in Experiment 1. Threatened females performed more poorly on comparison problems and better on solve problems, suggesting that motivation can also account for the effect of subtle threat on performance. Stereotypes can also influence performance through priming processes. That is, activating stereotype constructs can lead individuals to behave stereotypically (e.g., Bargh, Chen, & Burrows, 1996). However, little research has focused on differentiating stereotype threat and stereotype priming effects. Experiment 5 sought to determine if threat and priming operate via different or similar mechanisms. As was the case in Experiments 1-4, stereotype threat debilitated performance on problems for which the prepotent solution approach was incorrect, but facilitated performance when the prepotent solution approach was correct. In contrast, female gender primes impaired performance on both types of quantitative GRE problems. These findings suggests that performance debilitation under stereotype threat may be the result of trying too hard, whereas stereotype priming effects may result from trying too little. In sum, this research illustrates the role that motivation plays in producing the effects of stereotype threat on performance and supports Jamieson and Harkins's (2007) mere effort account.

The purpose of this study is to analyze and provide empirical evidence about the influence of budgeting participation and budget goal characteristics on managerial performance with a non-physical work environment as moderation. Population variables in this study are all leaders and financial officers in private vocational schools in the city of Semarang listed in the structure of the division of school work in 2016 which amounted to 14 vocational high schools and each was taken by 3 people so that there were 42 respondents, while the sampling technique used the census method. Data analysis method used is Regression Moderation Analysis (MRA) Hypothesis 1 test results note that the value of t arithmetic = 3.012> t table = 1.694 with a number of significance = 0.003 <α = 0.05 (significant), so the hypothesis (H1) that participation budgeting has a positive effect. on proven managerial job performance. Regression coefficient β1 = 0.567 (positive sign), it can be interpreted that the higher the participation in budgeting, the higher the managerial performance. Hypothesis 2 testing is known that the value of t = 2.723> t table = 1.694 with a significance value = 0.010 <α = 0.05 (significant), so the hypothesis (H2) that the characteristics of the budgetary objectives have a positive effect on managerial performance of the work proved. Stepwise coefficient = 0.279 (benchmark), can be interpreted more clearly the characteristics of the managerial level budget objectives. Testing hypothesis 3 is known that the value of t 2.484> t table = 1.694 with a significance value = 0.026 <α = 0.05 (significant), so the hypothesis (H3) that the work environment is not moderate, moderate moderate positive positive effect on budget participation on managerial work performance proven. Testing hypothesis 4 is known that the value of t arithmetic 2.333> t table = 1.694 with the number of significance = 0.032 <α = 0.05 (significance nt). Thus the hypothesis (H4) that the non-physical work environment positively influences the characteristics of budgetary goals on proven managerial work performance. Interaction test results show β4 = 0.163 (positive sign), it can be interpreted that the existence of a non-physical work environment that is conducive will strengthen the influence of the characteristics of the budget objectives on managerial work performance. Keywords: Budget participation, characteristics of budget objectives, non-physical work environment, managerial work performance

IntroductionThe issue of underrepresentation of women in medical leadership roles, particularly in their retention and long-term engagement, is a pressing challenge in healthcare. Despite advancements in women’s initial entry into...