The transferability from Synchronous Computer-Mediated Communication to Oral Discussion

Computer-mediated communication (CMC) has a significant impact upon organizations by affecting decision-making procedures and communication structures. Early CMC research was guided by the cues filtered out theory, which proposed CMC is inherently constrained in comparison to face-to-face (FtF) interactions due to the limited bandwidth of the medium. A more recent perspective, social information processing theory, proposes that CMC differs from FtF in the rate of information transmission but is capable of transmitting social information. In this study cues filtered out and social information processing theories were tested using a longitudinal design. The current study examined temporal effects on social and task cohesion. A more positive relational tone was expected with message accumulation over time in CMC. As well as inter-media differences, intra-media differences between asynchronous and synchronous CMC were examined. Results supported social information processing theory and ran counter to predictions of the cues filtered out theory. Differences between synchronous CMC and FtF were obtained at time 1, followed by convergence at time 2 and time 3, for both social and task cohesion. Asynchronous CMC groups were significantly less cohesive at all times compared to the synchronous conditions. The media therefore differed along the lines of synchronicity rather than partial (CMC) versus full (FtF) cues, with synchronous CMC being more like FtF than asynchronous CMC. Support was also obtained for the relationship between cohesion and performance being strongest when the level of cohesion corresponds to the dimension of performance.

The current study reports on a meta-analysis of the relative effectiveness of interaction in synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC) and face-to-face (FTF) contexts. The primary studies included in the analysis were journal articles and dissertations completed between 1990 and 2012 (k= 14). Results demonstrate that interaction in SCMC and FTF had a significant impact on second language (L2) development, providing further support for previous research demonstrating the efficacy of interaction in both communication modes (e.g., Mackey & Goo, 2007; Pellettieri, 2000; Smith, 2004, 2005). There was also a small advantage for interaction in SCMC on measures of overall L2 learning outcomes, with additional analyses indicating a small advantage for SCMC interaction on productive and written measures and a small advantage for FTF interaction on receptive and oral learning outcomes. Interestingly, there were no significant differences between SCMC and FTF, suggesting the mode of communication has no statistically significant impact on the positive developmental benefits associated with interaction.

To date, linguistic alignment studies in second language acquisition have mainly been conducted during face‐to‐face (FTF) interactions. In the current study, we examined and compared the effect of structural alignment on the development of English direct and indirect questions in FTF and synchronous computer‐mediated communication (SCMC) contexts. Additionally, we assessed participants’ working memory capacity and previous knowledge of the target structures. We assigned 50 Korean learners of English to either an FTF or SCMC modality. Over 3 weeks, they completed a pretest, two interactive alignment sessions, a working memory test, and immediate and delayed posttests. Results indicate that primed production of direct and indirect questions is significantly more likely than unprimed production. Moreover, we found an interaction with modality for primed production of direct questions but not for indirect questions. Findings suggest learning effects for direct questions only and that this effect is facilitated by the degree of alignment.

Previous research on synchronous computer‐mediated communication (SCMC) has shown that SCMC interaction could draw learners’ attention to form in ways that are similar to face‐to‐face interaction. However, the role of task type in focusing learners’ attention on form has not been widely researched. In a repeated‐measures design, this study investigated if task type had any effect on the number and characteristics of focus‐on‐form instances of 54 English‐as‐a‐foreign‐language learners. Two jigsaw–dictogloss task pairs were designed and matched for content. Following a practice task session, randomly formed dyads performed each of the tasks using MSN Messenger and CoWord software. Language‐related episodes (LREs) were identified and categorized according to their focus, outcome, and type. Results showed that the dictogloss task elicited a higher number of LREs than the jigsaw task. Tasks also displayed some differences with respect to the characteristics of LREs. Whereas the dictogloss was characterized by orthographic, solved correctly, and negative feedback LREs, the jigsaw was characterized by unresolved LREs. The results are discussed in light of the arguments about the effects of limited information‐processing capacity on task performance (Skehan, 1998).

Language negotiations facilitate second language acquisition (SLA) in both face-to-face (FTF) and computer-mediated interactions. Research shows that dyadic type can impact the quantity and quality of negotiations. Although both learner (L)-learner and native speaker (NS)-L dyadic type interactions have shown to be beneficial to SLA, it is still unclear which dyadic type is more effective for second language (L2) development in FTF and computer-mediated interactions. To fill this gap, this quantitative study compares FTF versus text-synchronous-computer-mediated communication (SCMC) task-based interactions by examining the following question: Is there a significant difference in the (1) frequency of negotiations and (2) effect of negotiations on subsequent L2 development in FTF interactions compared with text-SCMC in the following three dyadic types: NS-low-proficiency learners (LPL), NS-high-proficiency learners (HPL), and HPL–LPL? The study is grounded in the Interaction Hypothesis, which argues that comprehensible input, opportunities for modified output, and noticing are essential for interactions to facilitate SLA through negotiation episodes. The participants included four NSs, four LPLs, and four HPLs. The participants were paired up to form two of each of the following dyadic types: NS–LPL, NS–HPL, and HPL–LPL. All dyads performed one task in each mode. The learners took a tailor-made posttest, designed to measure their L2 development. The data collection included transcribed FTF interactions, SCMC chats, and posttest scores. The interactions were coded for negotiation episodes and strategies. The posttest responses were coded as correct, partially correct, or incorrect. Chi-square test of independence was used to analyse the quantitative data because of their categorical nature and small sample size. Results found no statistically significant difference in the frequency of negotiation episodes among the three dyadic types or the LPLs’ and HPLs’ language learning outcome in FTF versus SCMC. Pedagogical implications are discussed.

This research synthesis explores the role of synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC) for second language acquisition (SLA). Using Hymes’ (1971) notion of communicative competence and Canale and Swain's (1980; Canale, 1983) subsequent framework for communicative language teaching, the synthesis examines the research trends, methods, and findings addressed by journal articles which have evaluated the role of SCMC for SLA over the past 20 years.

It is a great pleasure to offer this tribute to Professor Leslie M. Beebe and to help celebrate her vital contribution to the field of cross-cultural pragmatics (CCP). There is no denying that Professor Beebe stands as a distinguished scholar in the field. Anyone who wishes to conduct research on second language (L2) pragmatics would not be able to begin without learning of or citing her work. Among her contributions to the field, I would first like to ponder her groundbreaking call for serious attention to L2 pragmatics as early as the mid-1980s, a time when pragmatics was a neglected area in second language acquisition (SLA) research and L2 pedagogy. In a number of scholarly papers and at conferences, she suggested that “the social rules of speaking” are “basics, not frosting on the cake” (Beebe, 1995, p. 4). Professor Beebe is acknowledged among SLA researchers as one of the earliest linguists who was deeply concerned with cross-cultural misunderstandings (which often lead to unfortunate and offensive cultural stereotyping) resulting from a lack of pragmatic competence. Also of great importance to the field was Professor Beebe’s contribution to establishing a solid link between pragmatics and SLA by introducing the concept of pragmatic transfer. In the late 1980s, by showing that L2 learners often refer back to rules of speaking from their first language (L1), she successfully demonstrated cross-linguistic influence at the level of pragmatics (Beebe & Takahashi, 1989a; Beebe & Takahashi, 1989b; Beebe, Takahashi, & Ulis-Weltz, 1990). Motivated by her seminal work, the research focus of L2 pragmatics began shifting from CCP to interlanguage pragmatics (ILP), moving beyond the comparison of L1 and L2 pragmatic conventions towards the understanding of the developmental stages that L2 learners go through. Since that time, pragmatics has rapidly grown into a legitimate area of research in the study of SLA. It is now widely accepted that pragmatics is indispensable in helping researchers to understand how L2 learners acquire and use the target language in a meaningful and appropriate manner. Professor Beebe’s knowledge of and enthusiasm for language-and-culture (Byram & Morgan, 1994) has immensely influenced both my coursework and dissertation study. Thanks to her, I gained an appreciation for the way that cultural and social motivations can provide an important basis for understanding linguistic behavior. This recognition has led me to write my dissertation on cross-cultural conversations. In one of the chapters in my dissertation, I strive to explain cross-cultural differences and the interactional consequences of these differences in accomplishing the speech act of disagreement. In doing so, I focus on specific and observable linguistic behavior, specifically, the use of discourse markers (DMs) by Korean L2 learners and native speakers of American English in everyday, face-to-face conversation. In a preliminary analysis of my data, I found a noticeable cross-cultural difference in the use of the DM but. In fact, it is a widely accepted view that East Asian cultures are oriented toward avoiding nonalignment with others. However, as Beebe and Takahashi (1989b) aptly point out, it is too simplistic and risky to determine cultural constraints on language use in polarizing terms (e.g., positive politeness vs. negative politeness, and direct language vs. indirect language). Warning against a dichotomous approach to cross-cultural communication, the researchers underscore contextual dimensions in

This study explored the benefits and drawbacks of synchronous voice-based computer-mediated communication (CMC) in a blended course of English for specific purposes. Quantitative and qualitative data from two groups following the same syllabus, except for the oral component, were compared. Oral tasks were carried out face-to-face with same L1 partners in the control group and through synchronous voice-based CMC with different L1 partners in the experimental group. The analysis included data from general proficiency pre- and post-test scores, oral Power Point presentation grades, students' questionnaires and students' and teachers' diaries. The results showed that achievements were significantly better in the experimental group and that there was also an increase of other positive factors which may effectively contribute both to second language acquisition (SLA) and to solving many of the problems which make speaking skills the weakest skill in foreign language contexts.

Research Problem: There are no prior studies comparing modes of communication for virtual teams working over a substantial period of time that combined an initial synchronous desktop audio or video meeting with subsequent text-based computer-mediated communication (CMC). Research Questions: Does the initial medium condition impact decision-making quality, creativity, group development, and process satisfaction? Literature Review: Previous literature on media richness (the ability of a medium to carry and reproduce information based on feedback, multiple cues, language variety, and personal focus) and group outcomes (the level of creativity and quality of the work delivered by the group) suggests that ad-hoc groups using asynchronous CMC alone (without any initial meeting) or asynchronous CMC combined with an initial face-to-face (FTF) meeting have significantly higher levels of creativity and decision quality, compared to single-mode synchronous CMC groups or FTF groups. Methodology: In this study, a laboratory experiment was conducted with 136 participants from 14 countries. All teams used asynchronous CMC for two weeks for a software requirements task, following an initial synchronous meeting in one of four conditions: FTF, desktop audioconferencing, desktop videoconferencing, or text only. Results and Discussion: Results suggest that there are no significant differences among the four conditions. This research indicates that it does not matter what medium is used for an initial short meeting of a group that is to subsequently work together via asynchronous text communication.

As the AI (Artificial Intelligence, AI) technology, especially the language model and the rapid development of intelligent learning system in the field of language education, contextualized input and output have gradually become an important path to promote Second Language Acquisition (SLA). Based on the theory of input hypothesis and output hypothesis and social culture and interactive approaches, this article system combed the AI drive learning environment, language input, output, and the change of the interactive mechanism and its influence on second language acquisition. Research suggests that AI can enhance the understandability and relevance of input through adaptive recommendation, multimodal presentation, and virtual situation simulation. At the output level, AI dialogue system, real-time error correction and scaffolding support for language learners provides a high frequency, low anxiety generated opportunities, complexity and accuracy in grammar, syntax and vocabulary, expression fluency and pragmatic appropriateness, etc, to promote the language output quality improvement. More importantly, AI integrates input, output and feedback into a dynamic loop process, thereby reshaping the occurrence conditions of traditional second language acquisition to a certain extent. In the affirmation of the potential of the AI in language learning at the same time, the paper also points out its authenticity, learner differences in interactive adaptation and technology rely on is still limited, and emphasizes on the importance of teachers' professional guidance to realize man-machine coordinated. This article aims to provide references for the research and instructional design of second language teaching supported by AI from both theoretical and practical perspectives.

Falls prevention education between older adults and healthcare providers during transition from hospital to community-living

Previous studies evidenced transfer effects from professional music training to novel word learning. However, it is unclear whether such an advantage is driven by cascading, bottom-up effects from better auditory perception to semantic processing or by top-down influences from cognitive functions on perception. Moreover, the long-term effects of novel word learning remain an open issue. To address these questions, we used a word learning design, with four different sets of novel words, and we neutralized the potential perceptive and associative learning advantages in musicians. Under such conditions, we did not observe any advantage in musicians on the day of learning (Day 1 [D1]), at neither a behavioral nor an electrophysiological level; this suggests that the previously reported advantages in musicians are likely to be related to bottom-up processes. Nevertheless, 1 month later (Day 30 [D30]) and for all types of novel words, the error increase from D1 to D30 was lower in musicians compared to nonmusicians. In addition, for the set of words that were perceptually difficult to discriminate, only musicians showed typical N400 effects over parietal sites on D30. These results demonstrate that music training improved long-term memory and that transfer effects from music training to word learning (i.e., semantic levels of speech processing) benefit from reinforced (long-term) memory functions. Finally, these findings highlight the positive impact of music training on the acquisition of foreign languages.

Increased second language acquisition (SLA) research interest in the effect of planning on subsequent L2 oral production has typically examined the effect of planning on the syntactic complexity, accuracy, lexical complexity, and/or fluency (CALF) of L2 production. However, the results of research in this domain are inconclusive. This study, a research synthesis and meta-analysis of SLA research on the effects of planning on the CALF of L2 oral production, attempts to facilitate a direct comparison of such research, first by examining the role of planning in theoretical models of (i) speech production, (ii) task complexity, and (iii) task readiness; second by summarizing the features of SLA research on planning; and finally by comparing the results of quantitative research on the effect of planning on subsequent L2 production. The results of the research synthesis portion of the study suggest a number of consistencies in SLA research on planning to date, whereas the results of the meta-analysis portion of the study suggest clear effects of planning on L2 oral production and have clear pedagogical implications for L2 instruction.

Jeff Magee and Jeff Kramer John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY, 1999, 374 pp. ISBN 0471987107, $64.99 The book is an introductory text to the ideas, concepts, and topics of concurrency. The text focuses on understanding concepts and techniques, and problems of concurrency, not on the implementation or language. The author's overall goal is that by a combination of learning and doing using Java should make the process of acquiring the skills relating to concurrency interesting, enjoyable, and challenging. The Java language is thus used only for illustration and programming experience of the reader. The book is intended for a computer science student or software developer. A background in programming is expected, as well as some familiarity with the essential concepts of object-oriented programming. Knowledge of the Java programming language and operating systems concepts is beneficial but not required. After reading the text, a reader can expect to have a broad understanding of the concepts of concurrency, the problems that arise, methods to emphasis desirable properties in a concurrent system, and ways to avoid the undesirable ones. The text provides a systematic treatment of concepts, as means to rigorously specify and model concurrent systems, with Java examples to animate and illustrate the concepts discussed. The book is organized into twelve chapters, with three appendices. The first eight chapters provide a concise and comprehensive foundation of concurrency, with the remaining four chapters focusing on more advanced concepts. The latter four chapters are somewhat supplemental and can be read at the discretion of the reader. The content of the text is self-contained, with no reliance upon external references. The authors provide a concluding set of notes and further topics which reference external works, but these are not used in the chapter contents. The introduction provides the foundation for the book, and an idea of what will follow in the rest of the text. The basics of modeling and Java are covered. Authors follow with the concepts of processes, threads and with the idea of concurrency. The emphasis is on using Java, and on the notation used to define a concurrent process or thread. The discussion continues covering interleaving and asynchronous concurrency. Various details about composition of parallel processes and finite state processing modeling are presented. The programming of concurrent execution using Java is then examined via the concept of multiple threads. Here, sharing objects among Java threads is also discussed. The concept of conditional synchronization is covered next, and is used to construct a monitor. The methods of the base object in Java is used, and a waiting queue associated with a Java object is discussed and implemented. This discussion is followed by introduction of deadlock. Authors show the conditions necessary for a deadlock to occur and present an analysis of a concurrent system establishing that such a system is deadlock-free. The classic Dining Philosopher's problem is used to illustrate the distinction between finding deadlocks in models and in programs. The presentation continues with the safety property (that asserts that nothing bad happens), and the liveliness property (that asserts that nothing good happens). Here, authors use the material on model-based design to consolidate many of the concepts previously discussed. No one modeling method or design methodology is emphasized. Then creation and elimination of threads in a running program is covered next. The dynamic starting and stopping of Java threads is presented. The discussion moves then to messaging passing. Asynchronous and synchronous messaging is presented with Java programming examples. The concept of a rendezvous, allowing for interaction in a messaging system, is also presented. Based on the concepts developed so far filter-pipeline, supervisor-worker, and announcer-listener concurrent architectures are examined. Java programs demonstrating how the elements of each model interact at runtime are developed. The presentation completes with modeling and implementing of timed systems. Time is signaled by the passage of successive time ticks. The authors then elaborate on a system that is event-based rather than thread-based. Java programs are used to illustrate in implementation the concepts discussed. The three appendices provide a reference, specification, and listing of semantics for the finite-state modeling algebra used by the authors throughout the book. The text is ideal for teaching in a classroom environment, or for a motivated reader to use for self-paced learning. Its organization follows a logical train of discussion and thought, with each chapter building successively on the other, with the more difficult concepts and topics withheld until later. This gradual approach makes the material flow smoothly and cohesively from the beginning to the end. The book is intended as a textbook, so does organize the material and discussion as one, but does not become too dry or bland to stifle the reader's interest in the material. The examples are inter-mixed with the discussion to highlight and emphasize essential points the authors make in each chapter. The text illustrates concepts well under discussion, and does not become a long-winded recital of theory. The topics examined are fundamental to concurrency, and are well illustrated and discussed, but no one topic is examined extensively. The code examples are well written concerning the programming style, indentation and comments. A CD is provided, containing the codes from the book. In addition supplementary material consisting of presentation slides and an errata is provided on the author's WWW site, as well as on the CD. The book is up to date both on the topics of concurrency, and with the Java applets, code, and programs used to illustrate them. Later, as the Java language evolves, the examples may need to be updated, but for the time being the text well represents that state of the Java language. William F. Gilreath, Micron Technology, Inc., Boise Idaho

The continuing education of standardized training of resident physicians is a problem that has been long considered. Based on the traditional case studies in Zhongshan Hospital of Fudan Univerisy, and combined with the characteristics of evidenced-based clinical practice and the personnel construction of multidisciplinary team, it has formed an innovative educational model based on clinical case discussions directed by residents; and discussed the implementation process and effectiveness evaluation during standardized training of resident physicians. All physicians of the internal medicine standardized training program participated in case discussions directed by residents, engaging actual cases encountered during clinical practice. Small groups of residents each recommended cases eligible for discussion. After thorough collection and organization of relevant clinical data, case discussions mainly focus on diagnosis, differential diagnosis and treatment. A representative from each group is responsible for presenting the results of the group discussion. Specialists and superior physicians do not participate in the discussion, but merely conclude or provide a closing comment. Each resident takes turn in rotating through different roles within a group, allowing a well-rounded participation and experience in leadership, expression, practice of clinical mindset, as well as application and execution of clinical guidelines. An accumulation of 60 case discussions were held within the last 5 years, benefiting over 2500 resident physicians. Each resident participated in an average of 15 case discussions. 150 residents have successfully graduated from the standardized training program and embarked on their clinical career in internal medicine. Clinical case discussions directed by residents not only enhances clinical abilities, but also serves as teaching resources and potential topics for scientific research. The application of this innovative educational model should be advocated and continuously refined. Key words: Resident; Standardized training program; Clinical case discussion; Educational model