Theory and Data in a Computational Model of Secularization

The methodological implications of the motives that underlie the study of religion and, more particularly, the academic study of religion have not, I think, received the attention they deserve. They are of the utmost importance, however, for the differences of motivation between the study of religion legitimated by the modern university and the scholarly study of religion that antedates it, sponsor radically different, if not mutually exclusive, approaches to its study. In asking why the study of religion is undertaken as an academic exercise – which is, after all, a comparatively recent development – I shall be attempting to delineate, to some extent, the relation of motive to method in what has come to be called Religious Studies. In clarifying that relation I hope also to show that Religious Studies – that is, the academic study of religion – must be a vocation in very much the same sense that Max Weber speaks of science as a vocation and, therefore, that such study must take as merely preliminary a ‘religious studies’ that is concerned only to ‘understand’ rather than to explain the phenomenon of Religion.

This book explores the interface of bodies and religion by investigating the impacts human-induced global warming will have on the embodied and performed practices of religion in ecologies of place. By utilizing analytical insights from religion and nature theory, posthumanism, queer ecologies, ecological animisms, indigenous knowledges, material feminisms, and performance studies the book advocates for a need to update how religious studies theorizes bodies and religion. It does so by in the first half of the book advocating for religious studies as a field, and the academy as a whole, to take the ongoing and deleterious future impacts of climate change seriously--to re-member that those laboring as scholars in religious studies, and the communities they study, have always been bodies in material bio-ecological places--and to let this inform the questions religious studies scholars ask. The book argues that this will lead to very different forms of engaged, liberatory scholarship that demands a different type of scholarship and public advocacy for resilience in the face of climate change. The second half of the book offers case study examples of how scholars may better engage religious bodies within petrocultures, while attending to new, emerging materialist posthuman assemblages of religious bodies. This book will be of interest to those in religious studies, the environmental humanities, and those working at the interface of the body and the natural world.

Buddhism is often represented as an inherently environmental religion. Contemporary Buddhist organizations and conservation activists alike draw on Buddhist concepts such as interdependence, compassion, and nonviolence as inspirations for environmental movements throughout Asia and in other parts of the world. However, historians such as Johan Elverskog have demonstrated that this representation is ahistorical and that in the past, Buddhist institutions exploited their environments to fuel their expansion. Elverskog tempered his argument by pointing out that Buddhism is varied and flexible enough that it can change, and this is demonstrated in many contemporary societies where Buddhist teachers and groups inspire and enact state policy and promote local conservation initiatives. This chapter will engage with case studies from throughout Asia – India, Taiwan, and Thailand – to explore how Buddhist communities understand and approach human-environment relations in the era of climate change. The chapter will explore multiple understandings of environmental cosmologies and forms of care (inspired by anthropologist Karine Gagné's work) beyond canonical or state narratives through an interdisciplinary lens, incorporating scholarship by anthropologists, historians, geographers, Indigenous Studies scholars, and religious studies scholars. Ultimately, just as Buddhism is varied and diverse, so too are Buddhist approaches to the changing climate and global issues that result from it.

American Religion 2, no. 1 (Fall 2020), pp. 10–13 Copyright © 2020, The Trustees of Indiana University • doi: 10.2979/amerreli.2.1.03 Reconfiguring the Boundaries of American Religious Studies Abtsam Saleh Harvard University, Cambridge, USA Why is American Islam is so Rarely Framed as an “American Religion” in the Field of Religious Studies? Despite existing in America long before the establishment of the United States, Muslims have been largely left out of discussions on American religion within the field of religious studies. In order to answer the question of why, one has to ask what scholars of religious studies have understood “American religion” to be. According to most surveys of American religious history, the term has been used to denote the history of Christianity in America, white Protestantism more specifically, some dating the origins of American religion back to the Protestant Reformation.1 Narratives surrounding American religion were constructed to center Protestantism and the ways it has dominated public religious life in the United States, reified by legal and political actors.2 Considerations of what fell under the category of American religion were largely based on proximity to mainline Protestant churches, casting all other denominations and/or religions outside of the category. Over time, however, 1 For more recent work on this topic see John Modern, “Marshall McLuhan, Playful Prophet” in “Forum: The Religious Situation, 1968 (Part 2),” Religion and American Culture 29, no. 2 (2019): 153–162. 2 See Marie A. Failinger, “Islam in the Mind of American Courts: 1800 to 1960,” Boston College Journal of Law and Social Justice 32, no.1 (2012): 1–29. Abtsam Saleh 11 historians of American religion have begun to expand on this narrow definition. R. Laurence Moore’s Religious Outsiders and the Making of Americans,3 although working with this mainline definition of American religion, expands on the category by examining its relationship with denominations and/or religions deemed as religious outsiders on the basis of dissenting from mainline Protestantism. Moore concludes that this categorization based on consensus-dissent is inadequate in expressing the plurality of American religious life in-so-much as it continues to center mainline Christianity as the religion of the US as a nation. In the more recent “The Study of American Religions: Critical Reflections on a Specialization,” Finbarr Curtis critically examines the category of American religion as a specialization within the discipline of religious studies, including its history of Protestant bias. Curtis highlights how despite attempts at expanding American religion to include narratives of underrepresented religious groups, these inclusions remain peripheral despite being recognized.4 This precise centering of Protestantism as the American religion and the locating of those not in proximity to it in its periphery is a reason why American Islam is so rarely framed as an “American religion” in the field of religious studies. Narratives of American religious history place American Islam in the periphery, dismissing its influence on American culture and American culture ’s influence on it. American religionists reify this categorization both in their scholarship and institutionally when American Islam is positioned as peripheral to the construction of the American nation and religion. Can Islam be “American religion”? If we move away from an understanding of American religion that centers white Protestantism and expand the category to mean religions who have both shaped and been shaped by this nation, whose understandings are put in conversation with the legal, social, political, economic, and cultural life of the United States, then Islam is certainly an American religion. American Muslims are part of the patchwork of American social-religious life, preceding the formation of the United States. Enslaved African Muslims were brought to the Americas centuries prior to the American Revolution, bringing with them their religious traditions, many maintaining them in conversation with their new surroundings, and some preserving them over generations.5 Over centuries, Islam lived and grew within 3 R. Laurence Moore, Religious Outsiders and the Making of Americans (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986). 4 Finbarr Curtis, “The Study of American Religions: Critical Reflections on a Specialization ,” Religion 42, no. 3 (2012): 365. 5 See Sylviane A. Diouf, Servants of Allah: African Muslims Enslaved in the Americas, (New York: New...

ABSTRACTIn this article I introduce a self-taught Chicana artist, Caroline Martinez, and highlight her work's religious significance. I offer a brief account of her life and a preliminary interpretation of her art. The art that adorns her Texas home and yard, I argue, is a visual testimony to the intercessory power of Jesus and Mary to heal the sick, feed the body, and protect the vulnerable. I then consider the implications of this case study for scholars in religious studies, Chicana studies, Catholic studies, and art history. Martinez's art evokes three important themes—religion, identity, and modernity—and offers reminders about three concomitant issues that face everyone who thinks about religion and art, especially self-taught artists and Chicana art: (1) What is the function of religion—and religious visual culture? (2) How do we talk about artists' religious identity, especially when there are multiple converging influences? (3) To what extent and in which sense can the work of self-taught artists like Martinez be understood as “modern” and to what extent are the artist and her work shaped by the social forces of “modernity”?

This chapter presents an overview of how Confucianism has been classified as a world religion in both popular and academic texts over the past century, suggesting that this classification has had a lasting impact on both the popular imagination and academic institutions. It argues that the notion of world religions has become the universally recognized “achievement” that provides model problems and solutions to a community of practitioners. In this case, this community consists of scholars in religious studies, as well as scholars who study Chinese religions in other fields, such as sociology, history, philosophy, and Asian studies. The chapter focuses on the acceptance and implementation of this paradigm in American academia, instead of comparing it to that of another country, such as Great Britain.

This three-part article traces the use of the word “prophet” to describe Native actors such as Neolin and Handsome Lake in colonial North America and the early United States; details the category's perpetuation and effects in work by ethnologists, anthropologists, historians, and scholars of religious studies; and, finally, proposes a focus on visionary media, including wampum and maps, as articulations of Native peoplehood—a concept borrowed from Native American and Indigenous Studies. The goal is to show how “prophet” classifications emerged within a context of colonization and religious dispute. Continued use reinforces narratives of Native disappearance, if not excuses anti-Native violence, in American religious studies. In response, I call on scholars to decolonize their writing and teaching about Native visionaries by focusing on their media as evidence of the futures they projected for their people.

Homo Ritualis: Hindu Ritual and Its Significance for Ritual Theory

International audience

The topic of this essay is the perennial problem of the relationship between religion and economics. However, many scholars in religious studies often fail to properly connect religious values and economics. In addition, modern sociological and economic theories that focus on particular abstract aspects of human society exaggerate these abstractions as critical or central features of human existence, but ignore other equally important features. In this context, many communities and groups have been formed to promote grassroots economic interaction and to protect people from an asymmetrical global economy. Among them, the Mondragón Cooperative Corporations in Spain has sought to provide an alternative economic community. The primary purpose of this study is to articulate and analyze the economic ethics underlying the practice of the Mondragón Corporacion Cooperativa, which is owned and governed by workers. Cooperatives such as Mondragón are governed by “Cooperative Principles” that differentiate them from traditional capitalist enterprises. This article examines the worker-owned cooperative movement as an alternative to both monopolistic capitalism and socialism for economic democracy. It examines how Mondragón’s workers and their leader can and should develop their own ways of coping with, confronting, and potentially resisting capitalism in their own local community. It attempts to demystify the dominant, global capitalist economy. This study aims to develop a set of practical strategies for achieving alternative economic ethics.

Death in Chinese culture is a multifaceted phenomenon shaped by centuries of philosophical and religious thought. This study explores the complementary conceptions of death in Chinese tradition through the lenses of Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism, highlighting their unique contributions and interconnected perspectives. Taoism views death as a natural part of the cosmic cycle, emphasizing harmony with nature, the flow of life energy (Qi), and the continuity of existence beyond physical life. Confucianism, in contrast, frames death within ethical, social, and familial dimensions, stressing filial piety, ancestral reverence, and the cultivation of moral relationships that extend beyond the individual. Buddhism adds a spiritual and soteriological dimension, interpreting death as a transition in the cycle of samsara, governed by karma, impermanence, and the potential for liberation (nirvana). Together, these traditions provide a holistic framework in which death is not merely an end but a transformation that balances natural, moral, and spiritual concerns. Historical examples, such as the philosophy of Wang Yangming, illustrate the integration of these traditions, showing how Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist ideas were synthesized to guide ethical living, spiritual cultivation, and the understanding of mortality. In repetition, Chinese funeral rites and ancestral rituals reflect this synthesis, blending ethical duties, cosmological awareness, and spiritual aspirations. Understanding these complementary conceptions provides valuable insights for scholars in religious studies, philosophy, anthropology, and cross-cultural healthcare, particularly in contexts where death intersects with ethical decision-making, bereavement practices, and cultural sensitivity.

This book poses critical questions and suggests constructive possibilities regarding the extent to which trinitarian and pluralist discourses can be put into fruitful conversation with one another. On the one hand, the book interrogates the possibilities of trinitarian theology and its ethical promise with regard to divine and creaturely relationality by putting it into specific engagement with discourses of pluralism, diversity, and multiplicity. It asks how trinitarian conceptions of divine multiplicity might open the Christian tradition to increasingly more creative and affirming visions of creaturely identities, difference, and relationality—including the specific difference of religious plurality. Alternatively, where can the triadic patterning evident in the Christian theological tradition be seen to have always exceeded the boundaries of Christian thought and experience, inhabiting and determining other religious traditions' conceptions of divine and/or creaturely reality in ways internal to their own distinctive histories? On the other hand, the book interrogates the possibilities of various discourses on pluralism by putting them in a very particular and concrete pluralist context. Religious pluralists, comparative theologians, and scholars of religious studies are place alongside and put into conversation with theological and doctrinal work carried out within the (albeit broadly conceived) normative thread of the Christian trinitarian tradition. To what extent can pluralist discourse collect within itself a convergent diversity of orthodox, heterodox, postcolonial, process, poststructuralist, liberationist, and feminist sensibilities while avoiding irruptions of conflict, competition, or the logic of mutual exclusion?

The paper examines John Samuel Mbiti’s legacy in teaching, research, and publication in African Traditional to Religion (ATR) at Makerere University. It documents his contribution Religious Studies’ scholarship. The crux of the paper is to interrogate his contribution towards teaching, research, and publication in ATR, with an interest in how this has continued to influence scholarship in religious studies. By examining his legacy, we aim at documenting knowledge production in ATR. This paper utilises data obtained through in- depth interviews with Mbiti’s contemporaries and other scholars, including alumni and current students of Religious Studies, and those that have read his publications. Besides, archival records of Mbiti’s works and online articles were reviewed to provide data that will enhance the discourse on his legacy. The paper contributes to the existing knowledge on Mbiti’s legacy in the teaching, research, and publication of ATR literature.

The three pioneers, Albert Moore, Colin Brown and Lloyd Geering, played a national role in changing the appreciations of religion in New Zealand. The chapter traces the growth of the New Zealand university programmes in Religious Studies and the different approaches they have taken to the academic study of religion (with some comparative observations on the situation in Australia). The success of Religious Studies in New Zealand has led to a dramatic increase in staff and student numbers and areas of specialist teaching and research. Topics explored include the future of the 'discipline' in New Zealand; the nature of the area of study; the contribution of New Zealanders to the international field; the public role of Religious Studies academics; the relationship of Religious Studies and Theology; and the post-September 11 context of the academic study of religion. Keywords: Albert Moore; Colin Brown; Lloyd Geering; New Zealand; religious studies; theological studies

In the afterword to this volume, Naama Cohen-Hanegbi describes this book as about “women’s health and women’s roles in healthcare” in the late Middle Ages and early modernity (316). Substantial recent research, including books and articles by editors Ritchey and Strocchia, has enhanced our understanding of both subjects. The chapters in this volume demonstrate how a wide historical gaze and careful contextual analysis of texts and images can better position the healing of women and women healers as central concerns in the history of medicine.The volume presents a series of case studies with overlapping interests and distinct methodologies, styles, and presentations. The geography of the chapters spans much of continental Europe and even includes two essays focused on the medieval Islamic world and the early Ottoman Empire. The opening section engages with religious healing—calling our attention to how religious rituals performed by women were part of the apparatus of healing. The next section contains four chapters, three of which focus on Italian subjects, to examine how medical knowledge was produced and transmitted through texts. The third grouping of chapters, which foregrounds care for the ill, shares considerable thematic ground with the first two chapters about religious healing. The final section of the book approaches issues of reproduction. The volume begins with a broad introduction and concludes with an afterword pointing to directions for future research.The subjects of women’s health and women caregivers, which too often have been absent from historical writing, require interdisciplinary analysis, and women as practitioners have often been obscured in the historical record. Methodologically, these chapters can be divided into two groups beyond the subject headings that structure the volume, according to whether their argument is primarily (1) textual or (2) contextual. The primarily textual essays identify the textual sources of women’s health and healing and explain how they fit into the late medieval and early modern intellectual landscape. This is not to say that these textually grounded chapters lack context. On the contrary, their strength often lies in how their authors draw out details about social and cultural milieus by examining the transformation of texts as they crossed cultural, social, geographical, and temporal terrain.The primarily contextual essays are exercises in looking obliquely at snippets of text, reading silence, and arriving at informed historical inference from a deep understanding of the social, cultural, intellectual, and (less often) economic contexts that surround a particular reference, document, or practice. The challenge in this worthy enterprise is providing compelling evidence to non-specialist readers who do not share the authors’ own deep expertise. In a few instances, the authors did not sufficiently equip readers with the breadth of understanding that this kind of argument demands.The chapters raise a broader methodological question for historians, literary scholars, art historians, and scholars of religious studies: After excavating such stories, how can we alter our histories of women’s health and healing to make them the central subjects and characters that they clearly were? Experiences of health and healing have always been gendered, albeit in ways that are fundamentally unstable and change over time. This volume is another push to treat gender in the history of medicine as a central analytical category rather than a niche interest.In that vein, a number of the contributions in this volume contain transcriptions, translations, and reproductions of primary sources that will serve as important resources in our classrooms, where we must teach histories that are more inclusive and representative. The Italian recipes for breast care, early Ottoman instructions for therapeutic baths, images from German surgery manuals, and excerpts from gynecological treatises in the medieval Islamic world will add texture and nuance to our portrayals of health and healing in past societies. I, for one, will never again teach Latin translations of Ibn Sina without the historiated initial depicting him holding a disembodied breast at the start of the section “de mamilla.”