Tools for Inquiry: Improving Questioning in the Classroom

Despite repeated attempts to reform schools, teachers' work has remained surprisingly stable. The purpose of this study was to investigate implementation of a state-funded restructuring initiative that intended broad changes in teachers' professional roles. Sponsors of the founding legislation reasoned that changes in teachers' roles would contribute to higher student achievement. This study examined the question of whether and how this program of comprehensive whole-school change promoted changes in teachers' roles in school governance, collegial relations, and the classroom. Further, the study traced the relationship of these changes to one another, and weighed the likelihood that they had the capacity to affect core educational practices. Theoretically, this study is situated in the available literature on teachers' collegial relations; participation in shared decision making; and classroom roles, relationships and practice. Three elementary schools served as the sites for intensive qualitative data collection completed over a two-year period. The schools differed in geographic location (two urban, one rural), but all enrolled a racially, ethnically and linguistically diverse population of students, and more than half of the students in each school qualified for free or reduced price lunch. The study resulted in multiple types and sources of data on teachers' professional roles, including: observations in classrooms, collegial interactions, and governance situations; interviews with teachers (including teacher leaders), parents, administrators, and students; and documents pertaining to the restructuring plans and process. Findings show that changes in the three areas were achieved unevenly in the three schools. All three schools introduced changes in classroom practice and roles, ranging from the adoption of multi-age classrooms to more modest innovations in curriculum or instruction. In only one case were changes in professional roles outside the classroom organized to support and sustain classroom changes. Two of the three schools introduced changes in staff organization (teacher teams) and leadership (governance committees), but under-estimated the professional development and other supports that would in turn support changes in classroom practice. Altogether, it appears unlikely that the observed changes in professional roles were sufficiently well established and connected to affect core educational practice in the long run.

Funded by the Jacob K. Javits Gifted and Talented Education Act, the Mustard Seed Project's major goal T91maoivti1ts was to train teachers to differentiate curricula for gifted students in the general education classroom. This study addressed the changes in classroom practices and the factors that influenced these changes. Changes were measured using the Classroom Instructional Practices Scale Johnsen, 1992). The sample included 1 urban and 5 rural sites, 8 principals, 74 teachers, mentor teachers, and 18 community representatives. Throughout the two years of implementation, majority of teachers at each site made changes. Changes in classroom practices and influencing factors, were determined from interviews, field notes, formal and informal observations, and a final survey. Participants cited staff-development activities, leadership, mentoring, resources, and project support as extremely beneficial.

Impact of curriculum reform: Evidence of change in classroom practice in mainland China

This paper focuses on the development of a model of research and professional development which aims to bring about transformations in classroom practice in situations that have previously proved resistant to change. We explore reasons why conventional models have failed to address one such situation, the continuing predominance of teacher-centred pedagogies in mathematics classrooms. We draw on findings from the Visible Mathematics Pedagogy research project to highlight how a critical model of participatory action research can be refined to enhance its potential to bring about changes in classroom practice. We report on research tools and processes that were developed, distinct from those commonly used in research, including the organisation of research team meetings around participatory principles, the active involvement of teachers in designing and employing data collection tools, and in generating protocols associated with video-stimulated reflection. We demonstrate how these research tools and processes enhanced collaboration and teacher agency, the trustworthiness of the research findings and teachers’ critical reflection on existing practice. We argue that our refined model of participatory action research can inform and support teachers and researchers wishing to transform classroom practice, especially in situations analogous to many mathematics classrooms, in which conventional models have had limited impact.

In this case study, the authors collaborated with two grade 4 teachers, who participated in a large-scale professional learning program focused on helping K-9 teachers enhance their classroom practice and confidence in teaching science through inquiry-based learning. The specific research questions that guided the study were the following: (a) How do components of teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) change as they adopt drone technology in the context of a unit on habitats? (b) What challenges will the teachers encounter as they adopt inquiry-based approaches to teaching and learning using drone technology? and (c) What factors will influence the development of teachers’ PCK? Using a multi-dimensional PCK framework, the authors report on changes in teachers’ orientations to teaching science and knowledge of assessment, instructional strategies, science curriculum, and student learning. In addition, it was found that teacher efficacy and knowledge of student learning were highly connected factors that contributed to PCK growth and changes in classroom practice. As the teachers gained more insight into how to support student learning through the adoption of drones and inquiry-based approaches to teaching and learning, they strengthened their confidence and belief in their own ability to create classroom learning environments that could engage all learners in science. Challenges and implications related to the adoption of droned technology are also discussed.

Initiatives for teachers’ professional development should rely on the epistemology of practice, that is, be founded on the premise that reflective teachers construct professional knowledge and develop professional skills through practice and through planning, observing or analysing practice. Reflection about teaching action and reflection in teaching action triggers innovation, especially when teachers work together to create the necessary conditions to transform learning. This paper advocates in favour of collaborative action research and innovation as a methodology to promote change in classroom practices. To illustrate this proposal, it presents a case study in which a secondary English teacher from a school which hosts adolescents at risk opens her classrooms to a researcher and a group of pre-service teachers with the objective to reflect upon her own practices and to become an agent of change. Our corpus is made of natural audio-recorded data from the discussions emerging during focus-group sessions held to evaluate the ongoing innovation and interviews to participating secondary students and trainee teachers. The analysis of those interactions will first lead us to reflect upon the challenges of promoting change in the classrooms. Then it will allow us to understand the impact of the experience and argue in favour of a model of teacher education based on team work as a tool to acquire professional skills and guarantee students’ learning success.

Dialogue, as a communication form characterized by its commitment to inclusiveness and rationality, has long been advocated by educators as a mechanism for helping students become better thinkers. Unfortunately, numerous claims about the educational potential of participating in dialogue have not resulted in substantial changes in classroom practices. Studies have consistently shown that in today's schools the dominant discourse remains largely monologic. In this article, we present a testable theory of change that suggests how sociocultural processes in a dialogic classroom influence students’ development. We identify and discuss three learning outcomes of dialogic teaching, including epistemological understanding, argument skills, and disciplinary knowledge. We then critically review empirical research related to the proposed theory, highlighting unsolved questions, inconsistencies, and directions for future studies. Finally, we focus on the implications of the proposed integrated theory and reviewed research for teachers and their language use in a classroom.

Presented at its launch in 1998 as the quintessential ‘third way’ welfare policy, the English education action zones (EAZ) experiment was one of a number of area‐based initiatives in the UK designed to tackle social exclusion in disadvantaged localities. The policy was premised upon the idea that different bodies—public, private, voluntary, and community—should work together to deliver ‘joined‐up solutions’ to ‘joined‐up problems’. This paper reports on the findings of an ESRC‐funded research project1 designed to investigate the origins, operation, and impact of the policy by interrogating the claims of its advocates and the counter‐claims of its critics. Overall, the research concluded that neither the hopes nor fears surrounding the policy have been realized. The impact of the policy within zones has been limited and patchy. There have been instances of innovation and positive shifts in parents' perceptions, but these have not been matched by consistent improvements in pupil performance or embedded changes in classroom practice. Nor have zones brought about new and more democratic modes of educational governance. However, initiatives take time to embed, and those working in zones experienced difficulty reconciling the need for innovative strategies to tackle disadvantage with the pressure of short‐term targets. Moreover, while the impact of the policy in particular localities has been limited, it may have contributed to a reordering of the politics of education, and, in particular, an erosion of some of the ‘old’ binaries around which allegiances have traditionally been structured. This paper argues that, as might be expected from a ‘third way’ policy, the policy has blurred the conventional oppositions of ‘left’ and ‘right’, ‘government’ and ‘governed’, and ‘public’ and ‘private’ sectors. Paradoxically, it has also reinforced new binaries—e.g. between ‘wreckers’ and ‘reformers’ and ‘standards’ and ‘structures’—and created new boundaries—between zone and non‐zone schools and policy ‘insiders’ and ‘outsiders’.

This paper introduces the use of experiential learning during the early stages of teacher professional development. Teachers observe student outcomes from the very beginning of the process and experience new pedagogical approaches as learners themselves before adapting and implementing them in their own classrooms. This research explores the implementation of this approach with teachers in Irish second level schools who are being asked to make significant pedagogic changes as part of a major curriculum reform. Teachers’ self-reflections, observations and interviews demonstrate how the process and outcomes influenced their beliefs, resulting in meaningful changes in classroom practice.

Examining how professional development impacted teachers and students of U.S. history courses

Portfolio-driven reform: Vermont teachers' understanding of mathematical problem solving and related changes in classroom practice

Aim:Mental health and behaviour has largely been understood through behaviourist or cognitive-behavioural theories and many classroom-based interventions are founded on cognitive behavioural frameworks. These models have typically considered the constructs of mental health and behaviour through observable, standardised measures. In the existing literature there appears to be a lack of understanding of behaviour from the perspective of individual experiences. The emergence of narrative approaches in mainstream practice shows promising evidence of alternative avenues for educational practitioners. By examining social discourses and individuals’ own constructs of mental health and behaviour, this study aimed to explore the impact of a narrative therapy based intervention on people’s understanding of mental health and behaviour, changes in their relationship with ‘problem’ behaviour and how this can bring about different action within the classroom.Method:Individual accounts were gathered through a series of narrative therapy conversations with three people: a young person, teacher and mother. An iterative approach was taken to data collection and analysed through the method of constructionist grounded theory. The narrative stories from individuals were incorporated into a final grounded theory.Findings:The findings showed that the use of narrative therapy illuminated the possibility for change in understanding a young person outside of structuralist notions of ‘difficult behaviour’. This change in understanding led, in turn, to a change in classroom practice in response to mental health and behaviour.Limitations:The small-scale study is not representative of all practice and therefore has implications for the applicability of the findings.Conclusion:The research has highlighted that supporting mental health and behaviour may not be so much about implementing a programme and ‘getting it right’, but more about constructing alternative stories in the classroom that open up other possibilities.

BackgroundThis case study examined the consequences of a literacy initiative designed to improve writing instruction for a high school under pressure to increase standardised test scores or face government oversight. Realities of underperforming schools, such as interruptions to instructional time, a focus on formulaic essay writing and decontextualised grammar skills, high teacher turnover, and a disproportionately large percentage of students with low ability levels, impact the implementation and sustainability of research‐based practices. Thus, we embarked on a school‐university partnership designed to overcome these barriers. We co‐constructed research to determine the effectiveness of an instructional framework designed by the school's instructional coach (a teacher educator hired by the school district responsible for enacting literacy reform and providing professional development) and her work with four ninth‐grade and tenth‐grade English teachers (Years 10 and 11) in the United States. This engaged scholarship process empowered teachers and the instructional coach to make changes in their approach to writing instruction.MethodsOur case study used the following data sources: teacher and student interviews, professional development and classroom observations, student writing attitude surveys and analyses of student writing. We utilised grounded theory to determine changes in classroom practice and students' academic growth.ResultsOur study revealed strengths of the professional development regarding classroom management and student writing dispositions. Yet it also illuminated problems such as continued emphasis on reading instruction, limited opportunities for student choice and lack of writing strategies that transferred to composing extended text.ConclusionThese results raised critical questions, which aided the instructional coach in refining professional development for writing instruction.

In-service professional development aims to change what experienced teachers do and think, using innovations to improve teaching and learning. Teachers’ beliefs and classroom practice are linked, but how they interact is less certain, and how they are changed by professional development is presented in the research literature by various models: linear change from beliefs to classroom practice or vice versa, and cyclical or interactive models. The process of change in beliefs and classroom practice for a group of experienced in-service English teachers at universities in China was investigated during and after a professional development course. Qualitative case study methodology was used, with data collected from interviews and observations of teaching, and then analysed and interpreted inductively for emerging patterns. The findings suggest that the change process for experienced teachers is both more complex, more varied and less certain that presented in existing models. Multiple models of change in beliefs and classroom practice were present in the data, including linear change in different directions, and no change. In-service teacher educators are recommended to plan for this multiplicity of models of change in beliefs and classroom practice by taking into account each teacher’s experience and existing teaching context.

The authors of National Science Education Standards consider equitable science education prerequisite to a scientifically literate society (National Research Council, 1996). Issues of equity and teaching, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills are inherent in discussions about science education reform (National Research Council, 1996; Rutherford & Ahlgren, 1990). Refocusing the goals of K-12 science education increases the need for science teachers to acquire more equitable teaching strategies. Gender studies in science education have focused on the sociocultural variables affecting students' subject choices (Eccles, 1989), intervention programs (Kahle & Meece, 1994), exemplary science teachers (Tobin & Fraser, 1987, 1990), teachers' public gender role (Tobin, Kahle, & Fraser, 1990), and students' views about science (Kahle & Meece, 1994). Recent reports on gender indicate that the Sputnik-era analysis of teaching may be inadequate for problems undermining adolescent girls' education (Eder, Evans, & Parker, 1995; Greenberg-Lake, 1994; Harris & Associates, 1993; Orenstein, 1994; Pipher, 1994; Schultz, 1991; Wellesley Center for Research on Women, 1992). For over two decades, researchers have studied the masculine image of science and its effect on recruitment and retention of women and girls into science, engineering, and technology fields. Keller (1992) argues that the image of science cannot change without challenging traditional concepts of masculinity and femininity. An explanation for science teaching's failure to reach girls is that many preservice science teacher education programs do not address the interwoven concepts of gender and science and how students' and teachers' different understandings of gender and science may affect their attitudes, beliefs, classroom behaviors, and expectations. Teachers' unconscious acceptance of gender-role stereotypes in science may influence their behaviors and teaching practices. Girls may receive fewer opportunities than boys to answer questions, use science equipment, and participate in science activities. Teachers may perceive boys' work to be more important than girls' work (Kahle & Meece, 1994). Teacher behaviors and practices reinforce the concept that science is a subject in which boys participate successfully more often than girls do. Kennedy (1990) suggests that successful inservice programs addressing changes in teachers' classroom practices should force them to question their experiences and to question the beliefs that are based on those experiences. Teacher education faculty may teach equity in education, but when one considers who takes and teaches science at tertiary-level institutions, universities are poor examples of equity in educational settings (Crozier & Menter, 1993; Scantlebury, 1994). Gender blindness does not begin when teachers enter their own classrooms. Martin (1991) challenges science educators to take responsibility for incorporating discussions about gender equity into science education. Many teachers are gender blind, believing that the equity issues in science teaching are resolved. Prospective teachers must consider how subtle and pervasive attitudes toward gender blindness may affect their classroom practices. Teacher education students have strong ideas about teachers and teaching from years of observation (Dunkin, Precians, & Nettle, 1994; Feiman-Nemser & Buchmann, 1987). Although Dunkin et al. (1994) imply that formal teacher education programs can influence preservice teachers' concepts about teaching, Feiman-Nemser and Buchmann (1987) argue that it is difficult for student teachers to critique what occurs in classrooms when they teach or in the classrooms of the teachers they observe. Preservice teachers often hold strong traditional attitudes toward gender-role stereotypes (Scantlebury, 1990). Field experiences in schools and conservative entities replicating and reinforcing traditional gender-role stereotypes may reinforce prospective teachers' stereotypic attitudes. …