Topics in electromagnetic, acoustic, and potential scattering theory

Electromagnetic Environment Associated with Lightning Strikes to Tall Strike Objects

Theoretical Analysis of 3-D Nonlinear Electromagnetic Resonant Cavities

Extreme conditions involve low or high temperatures (> 1500 K), high pressures (> 30 MPa), high strains or strain rates, high radiation fluxes (> 100 dpa), and high electromagnetic fields (> 15T). Material properties under extreme conditions can be extremely different from those under normal conditions. Understanding material properties and performance under extreme conditions, including their dynamic evolution over time, plays an essential role in improving material properties and developing novel materials with desired properties. To understand material properties under extreme conditions, we use molecular dynamics (MD) simulations with recently developed reactive force fields (ReaxFF) and traditional embedded atom methods (EAM) potentials to examine various materials (e.g., energetic materials and binary liquids) and processes. The key results from the simulations are summarized below. Anisotropic sensitivity of RDX crystals: Based on the compress-and-shear reactive dynamics (CS-RD) simulations of cyclotrimethylene trinitramine (RDX) crystals, we predict that for mechanical shocks between 3 and 7 GPa, RDX is the most sensitive to shocks perpendicular to the (100) and (210) planes, while it is insensitive to those perpendicular to the (120), (111), and (110) planes. The simulations demonstrate that the molecular origin of anisotropic shock sensitivity is the steric hindrance to shearing of adjacent slip planes. Mechanisms of hotspot formation in polymer bonded explosives (PBXs): The simulations of a realistic model of PBXs reveal that hotspots may form at the nonplanar interfaces where shear relaxation leads to a dramatic temperature increase that persists long after the shock front has passed the interface. For energetic materials this temperature increase is coupled to chemical reactions that eventually lead to detonation. We show that decreasing the density of the binder eliminates the hotspots or reduces the sensitivity. Cavitation in binary metallic liquids: We demonstrate the stochastic nature of the cavitation process in binary metallic liquids, and that classical nucleation theory can predict the cavitation rate if we incorporate the Tolman length derived from the MD simulations. Synthesis the single metallic glass on amorphous substrate: We show that single component metallic glasses (SCMGs) can be synthesized by thermal spray coating of nanodroplets onto an amorphous substrate (ND-AS). The key requirements to form the SCMGs are the rapid cooling rates and the amorphous substrates. Carbon and hydrogen phases under extreme conditions: we report on the use of electron force fields (eFF) in characterizing the Hugoniot relationships of carbon, which includes consecutive phase transitions also captured by experiments, as well as the Hugonoit states of hydrogen centered at various initial densities compared to experiments and the predictions of other theories.

Experimental investigations were made on the transport properties of several superconducting systems in which the superconducting state was out of thermodynamic equilibrium. In such systems, the dynamics of the pairing processes governs the restoration of equilibrium. Systematic investigations into the nonequilibrium dynamics were made possible by creating a steady state depairing region at a supernormal interface with a transport current. Information Was obtained by direct probing of the potential profiles in the depairing region. Measurements were made with superconducting microcircuits with high spatial resolution extending to the scale of the wavelength of light which limits our fabrication system. It was found that at the depairing region, the experimental results can be described by the existence of two distinct potentials, one for the single electron excitations and one for the electron pairs. A theory for the dynamics of the nonequilibrium process was proposed and succeeded in accounting for most of the experimental observations. The relaxation time associated with this dynamics is found to be longer than the usual equilibrium relaxation time for the condensed electron pairs. Similar measurements were extended to nonequilibrium regions close to current carrying interfaces between two different superconductors. In this case it was found that the two-potential measurements performed within the nonequilibrium region can be described in terms of a time dependent boundary condition at the interface. To study the nonequilibrium superconductivity associated with this time dependent boundary condition in a controlled way, two such superconducting boundaries were brought very close to each other, creating a well defined boundary region less than one micron in length. It was found that the boundary region showed Josephson-like effects as well as a unique phenomenon in which electromagnetic radiation increases the apparent superconducting transition temperature. A model for this situation was proposed in which two complex wavefunctions with independent phase angles interfere quantum mechanically inside the boundary region. This model successfully explains most of the observed phenomena associated with the boundary region in the voltage sustaining nonequilibrium state.

Explosions of explosives can produce electromagnetic radiation signals. Based on the theory of the explosion of electromagnetic radiation, the effects of metal additives on the electromagnetic radiation produced by explosive detonation should be researched. In this paper, the electromagnetic radiation signal characteristic produced by the passivation RDX of metal additives explosion were studied by experimental. The rod-shaped antenna measurement system was used to measure the electromagnetic radiation signals generated by the different percentages of aluminum-containing passivation RDX and pure passivation RDX. The results show that the intensity of the electromagnetic radiation signal produced by the explosion is obviously increased by mixing aluminum. In the case of the same explosive mass, the signal intensity of the electromagnetic radiation generated by the explosion increases with the aluminum mass percentage is increased. When the content of aluminum is the same，with the increase of the mass of explosives，the intensity of the electromagnetic radiation signal generated by explosion also increases. The main component of the electromagnetic radiation signal frequency generated by explosives is less than 1MHz，the electromagnetic spectrum generated by explosives with the same composition is consistent.

This thesis deals with electromagnetic inspired acoustic metamaterials, enabling sound-matter interactions in different wave scenarios that include propagation, guided-waves, radiation, refraction, reflection and transmission. To this end, a particular emphasis is placed on introducing novel applications for acoustic metamaterials operating on each one of the aforementioned wave scenarios. A few years ago, metamaterials have been introduced as a new class of composite artificial materials, engineered to produce unusual effective material properties not readily available in nature. Electromagnetic metamaterials are probably the oldest class of metamaterials, being nowadays in the process of reaching maturity and being proposed for interesting commercial applications. On the other hand, as in most young but not yet mature emerging fields of science, acoustic metamaterials are still providing lots of fertile and unexplored ground for research and study. Despite many inherent physical differences, the propagation of electromagnetic and acoustic waves are both governed by a similar mathematical model, the so-called Helmholtz wave equation. The main purpose of this work is to leverage this amazing similarity by translating recent advances in electromagnetic metamaterials into their corresponding, previously unseen, applications in acoustics. The first contribution of this thesis is to adapt the classic electromagnetic transmission-line theory to allow the design of acoustic metamaterials. The proposed circuit-based theory finds a direct application in the design of composite right/left hand transmission-line metamaterials, which yield novel guided-wave applications for acoustic metamaterials. Then, the developed theory is leveraged to model and achieve optimal design of different acoustic metamaterial-based devices, such as leaky-wave antennas and reflector-type metasurfaces. The second part of the thesis spins around acoustic leaky-wave antennas and their different functionalities, showing that they are able to act as acoustic dispersive prisms in the refraction mode and as acoustic single sensor direction finder in the radiation mode. Studying reflection phenomena in sound-metasurface interactions constitutes the next part of this thesis, where a membrane-capped cavity is introduced performing as an ultra-thin unit-cell for reflective acoustic metasurfaces. This leads to exciting applications of the concept, like acoustic reflectarray antennas and acoustic metasurface skin-cloaks Finally, the last part of this thesis deals with transmission phenomena in acoustic metasurfaces and, especially, in orbital angular momentum metasurfaces. This concept results in the design of an innovative labyrinthine-type helicoidal unit-cell that is used for phase coding a surface and transforming impinging acoustic wavefronts into transmitted helical wavefronts.

The advent of gravitational wave (GW) astronomy has provided a new window through which to view and understand the Universe. To fully exploit the potential of GW astronomy, an understanding of all the potential electromagnetic counterparts to a gravitational wave detected source will help maximise the science returns. Here I present a study of the electromagnetic emission from relativistic jets that accompany the merger of binary neutron stars or black hole-neutron star systems. These counterparts provide a probe for the structure and dynamics of these relativistic outflows. Binary neutron star, or neutron star-black hole, mergers are thought to be the dominant progenitor of short gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). Here we investigate the possibility that there is a hidden population of low-Lorentz factor jets resulting in failed GRBs, on-axis orphan afterglows, and what kind of counterparts can be expected given a merger-jet population dominated by these failed-GRB jets. I find that for GW detected mergers, ∼ 80% of the population of on-axis events may result in a failed GRB afterglow. The afterglow of a failed GRB is characterised by the lack of any prompt emission; where the γ-rays are emitted within an optically thick region of the low-Lorentz factor (Γ) outflow and significant suppression via pair production and a high opacity results in the photons coupled to the pair plasma. This plasma will undergo adiabatic expansion, and the photons will decouple at the photospheric radius. The energy in the prompt photons, for a sufficiently low-Γ outflow, will have been significantly suppressed. GW detected mergers have a Malmquist bias towards on-axis events (i.e. the rotational axis of the system), where the peak of the probability distribution is an inclination ∼ 30⁰. If the jets from these mergers have an intrinsic structure out to wider angles, then the majority of mergers will be accompanied by electromagnetic counterparts from these various jet structures. By making some simple assumptions about the energetic structure of a jet outside of a bright core region, the various temporal features that result from a given jet structure can be predicted. Where the population of merger jets is dominated by a single structure model, I show the expected fractions of optical counterparts brighter than m_AB = 21. On 17 August 2017, the Light Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO) in collaboration with Virgo detected the merger of a binary neutron star system. Various electromagnetic counterparts were detected: the GRB 170817A by Fermi/GBM and INTEGRAL; an optical, blue to red, macro/kilo-nova from ∼ 1/2 day post merger to ∼ 5 − 10 days; and a brightening radio, and X-ray counterpart from ∼ 10 days. Optical detection of this counterpart at a magnitude ∼ 26 was made at ∼ 100 days post-merger. Analysis of this counterpart is consistent with the afterglow of a Gaussian structured jet viewed at the system inclination, ∼ 18 ± 8⁰. If all short GRB jets have a similar jet structure, then the rates of orphan afterglows in deep drilling blind surveys e.g. the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST), will be higher than those expected from a homogeneous, or ‘top-hat’ jet, population. The rates for the various jet structures for orphan afterglows from mergers are discussed, showing that for a population of failed GRBs, or an intrinsic Gaussian structure, an excess in the orphan rate may be apparent. Understanding the dynamics and structure for the jets from black-hole systems born at the merger of a compact binary can help give clues as to the nature of jets from black holes on all scales. As an aside, I show empirically that regardless of black hole mass or system phenomenology, the relativistic jets from such systems share a universal scaling for the jet power and emitted γ-ray luminosity. This scaling could be due to the similar efficiencies of various processes, or alternatively, the scaling may be able to give insights into the emission and physical processes that are responsible for high-energy photons from these outflows. GW astronomy offers a probe of the most extreme relativistic outflows in the Universe, GRBs. The predicted electromagnetic counterparts from these outflows, in association with GW detections, provides a way to probe the Lorentz-factor distribution for merger-jets. Additionally, the phenomenological shape of the afterglows, at various inclinations, gives an indication of the intrinsic structure of these jets. An understanding of these dynamical and structural qualities can be used to constrain the parent population, merger rates, and binary evolution models for compact binary systems.

Characterization of inland water is a topic of great interest due to the broad spectrum of potential applications. Applied geophysic boasts different techniques adapted to retrieve useful information about these kinds of environments. Certainly, the most common geophysical techniques used in shallow waters are the seismic methods. However, there are some situations in which seismic methods could fail. Although nowadays it does not exist a method able to solve completely this task, electromagnetic techniques are a cost efficient tool to provide useful information. Thanks to their versatility, we concentrated our attention on the possibility of the Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) and of the low induction number electromagnetic multi-frequency soundings measurements, carried from the water surface. We started from acquisitions performed in controlled settings. We described how we reproduced the field condition of a riverine GPR survey in laboratory experimentation. We selected a 1500 MHz GPR antenna, and we studied five types of riverine bottom sediments. We developed two different approaches to interpret the GPR responses of the sediments: the velocity and the amplitude analysis. The amplitude analysis developed is particularly innovative and fit very well the field requirements. We tried to estimate the sediments porosities by some mixing rules by the electromagnetic properties founded with both the analysis performed. The comparison among the porosities provided by the GPR measurements and the porosities measured by direct methods confirm the accuracy of the velocity analysis and it highlights the poor reliability of the amplitude analysis. Successively, we tested our methodology in survey condition. We conducted an integrated geophysical campaign on a stretch of the river Po in order to check the GPR ability to discriminate the variability of riverbed sediments through an analysis of the bottom reflection amplitudes. We conducted continuous profiles with a 200MHz GPR system and a handheld broadband electromagnetic sensor. A conductivity meter and a TDR provided punctual measurements of the water conductivity, permittivity and temperature. The processing and the interpretation of both the GEM-2 and GPR data were enhanced by the reciprocal results and by integration with the punctual measurements of the electromagnetic properties of the water. The GPR measurements provided maps of the bathymetry and of the bottom reflection amplitude. The high reflectivity of the riverbed, derived from the GPR interpretation, agreed with the results of the direct sampling campaign that followed the geophysical survey. The variability of the bottom reflection amplitudes map, which was not confirmed by the direct sampling, could also have been caused by scattering phenomena due to the riverbed clasts which are dimensionally comparable to the wavelength of the radar pulse. About the multi-frequency electromagnetic sensor, we analyzed the induction number, the depth of investigation (DOI) and the sensitivity of our experimental setup by forward modeling varying the water depth, the frequency and the bottom sediment resistivity. The simulations led to an optimization of the choice of the frequencies that could be reliably used for the interpretation. The 3406 Hz signal had a DOI in the PO water (27 Ωm) of 2.5m and provided sediment resistivities higher than 100 Ωm. We applied a bathymetric correction to the conductivity data using the water depths obtained from the GPR data. We plotted a map of the river bottom resistivity and compared this map to the results of a direct sediment sampling campaign. The resistivity values (from 120 to 240Ωm) were compatible with the saturated gravel with pebbles in a sandy matrix that resulted from the direct sampling, and with the known geology

In this thesis, we argue that microscopic field theories, which as such are already scientifically established, have emerged as a new paradigm in materials physics. We hence seek to elaborate on such field theories which underlie modern ab initio calculations, and we apply them to the bismuth tellurohalides (BiTeX with X = I, Br, Cl) as a prototypical class of spin-based materials. For this purpose, we begin by constructing tight-binding models which approximately describe the spin-split conduction bands of BiTeI. Following this, we derive the theory of temperature Green functions systematically from their fundamental equations of motion. This in turn enables us to develop a combined functional renormalization and mean-field approach which is suitable for application to multiband models. For the Rashba model including an attractive, local interaction, this approach yields an unconventional superconducting phase with a singlet gap function and a mixed singlet-triplet order parameter. We further investigate the unusual electromagnetic response of BiTeI, which is caused by the Rashba spin splitting and which includes, in particular, an orbital paramagnetism. Finally, we conclude by summarizing the Functional Approach to electrodynamics of media as a microscopic field theory of electromagnetic material properties which sits in accordance with ab initio physics.

Objective To determine the chondrogenic potential of mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) under exposure of extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields (ELF-EMF) and discuss the application prospect of EMF in cartilage tissue engineering.Methods Cell pellets of rat bone marrow-derived BMSCs were cultured in vitro under the addition of fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2) and transforming growth factor-β3 (TGF-β3).Pellet cultures were exposed to sinusoidal ELF-EMF (1.0 mT,50 Hz).After 3 weeks of inductive differentiation culture,chondrogenesis was detected by alcian blue staining,and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (real-time PCR) was used for detection of chondrogenesis related proteins.Glycosaminoglycan (GAG) contents of pellet cultures were determined using the dimethylmethylene blue (DMMB) dye-binding assay.Results With the effects of growth factors,EMF could significantly promote chondrogenic differentiation of BMSCs pellet cultures,and the gene expression of collagen type Ⅱ,X and aggrecan in rat BMSCs was also significantly up-regulated.The gene expression of sex determining region Y box 2 (SOX9) did not show significant difference between EMF exposed groups and nonexposed groups.The glycosaminoglycan (GAG)/DNA ratio of EMF exposed pellet cultures reached 3.108 ±0.341,which was significantly higer than those unexposed pellet cultures.Conclusion Increased expression of collagen type Ⅱ,X and GAG content in pellet cultures under EMF exposure may contribute to the chonderogenic differentiation of rat BMSCs.EMF was able to stimulate and maintain chondrogenic differentiation of rat BMSCs under influence of growth factors.EMF alone,however,could not induce chondrogenic differentiation. Key words: Electromagnetic fields; Mesenchymal stem cells; Pellet culture; Chondrogenic differentiation

This project concerns the use of an electromagnetic sensor for the detection of leaks/cracks in water pipes. As old metal pipes corrode they start to become brittle, resulting in the potential for cracks to appear in the pipes. In addition corrosion can build up resulting in a restricted flow of water in the pipe. Using an electromagnetic (EM) wave sensor to monitor the signal reflected from the pipes in real time, provides the necessary information to determine where a leak in the pipe has occurred. Analysis of the reflected signal can provide the operator with information about the condition and position of a leak within the pipe. This is the first time research has been carried using EM waves for leak detection in water pipelines. This project involves the design and construction of an EM sensor operating at frequencies in the range of 240MHz to 560MHz, and at a power of OdBm. The sensor is launched into the water pipeline through any existing hydrant and is moved along the pipeline to check for leaks. The simulation software High Frequency Structure Simulator (HFSS) was used to model the pipe section as a circular waveguide cavity, and also for antenna simulation. The monopole and loop antenna were designed to determine the best antenna for this project. The printed circuit board (PCB) design package Eagle was used to provide the surface mount layout for the sensor, and the PCB board was fabricated by using a computer numerical control (CNC) routing machine. Finally the graphical interface package LabVIEW was used to control the frequency sweep for the sensor and to capture the data from the sensor. Based on the findings of this project, the EM wave sensor could be used to determine a leak up to a 0.9 correlation limit using low cost RF electronic devices.

Electromagnetic compression of tubular profiles with high electrical conductivity is an innovative joining process for the manufacturing of lightweight structures. The mandrel's material has an influence on the transferable loads which is affected by the Young's modulus as well as the strength of the material. This was investigated, on the one hand, by changing the mandrel's material and, on the other hand, by using the same mandrel material with differing strength. Furthermore, taking conventional interference fits into account, the contact area's influence on the joint's quality seems to be of significance, as e.g. the contact area and the friction coefficient between the joining partners proportionally determine an allowed axial load or torsional momentum. Therefore, different contact area surfaces were prepared by shot peening and different machining operations and strategies. The mandrel's surfaces were modified by shot peening with glass beads and Al2O3 particles. An alternative preparation was performed using simultaneous five-axis milling, because potential joining partners in lightweight frame structures within the Transregional Collaborative Research Centre SFB/TR10 would be manufactured similarly. After that, the manufactured surfaces were characterized by measuring the surface roughness and using confocal whitelight microscopy. Afterwards the modified mandrels were joined by electromagnetic compression. The influence of different mandrel's surface conditions on the joint's mechanical properties was analysed by tensile tests. Finally, conclusions and design rules for the manufacturing of joints by electromagnetic compression are given.

Dynamic reconfiguration of antenna devices is becoming a prime need in emerging telecommunication and remote sensing systems operating in the portion of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum spanning from millimeter-wave (MMW) to terahertz. Different techniques and materials are currently available for the implementation of a given EM reconfiguration in antenna systems at microwaves andMMW, such as semiconductors, RF-MEMS, Liquid Crystal, and ferroelectrics. However, a common feature to all these technologies is the significant increased loss and complexity with regard to the devices fixed counterpart. Both loss and complexity further increase when high-performance reconfiguration capabilities are addressed atMMWand above, constituting a major limitation to the future deployment of dynamically controllable systems. Advanced performance, low-complexity and low-cost are, therefore, the cornerstones in the development of new technologies for antenna reconfiguration. In this framework, the main objective of this thesis is to contribute to the advancement of low-cost and efficient technologies enabling antenna reconfiguration capabilities fromMMWto THz frequencies. Within this scope, it is proposed the analysis, design and implementation of mechanically reconfigurable devices using dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs). DEAs are an emerging technology that possesses unique properties, and represents a potential alternative to conventionalmechanical reconfiguration schemes. DEAs are especially attractive for their large strain combined with low-costmaterials and fabrication, analog control and near-zero DC power consumption. These characteristics make them particularly suited to the realization of low-cost and low-loss reconfigurable antennas. The high potential of DEAs for the realization of adaptive devices is experimentally validated by the development of different prototypes operating atMMWand THz frequencies: i) a very low-loss true-time-delay phase shifter operating at Ka-band; ii) a Ka-band reconfigurable reflectarray with 1-D beam-scanning capability; iii) a stretchable and beam-scanning THz reflectarray exhibiting the uncommon potential for the implementation of conformal or reconfigurable devices based on mechanical stretching. The designs and concepts demonstrated in this thesis pave the way for the evolution of new DEA-based reconfigurable devices resulting in low-cost, low loss and compact structures.

Neutron stars (NSs) represent an active area of research: from their birth following the collapse of massive stars in supernova explosions, through their lives as hot thermal sources, radio pulsars and/or magnetars, up to their catastrophic demise (when they reside in compact binaries) following gravitational wave-driven coalescence. Progress in understanding the structure and signals of neutron stars demands expertise across a wide range of disciplines: from theoretical and observational astrophysics to nuclear and particle physics, computational relativity and gravitational wave (GW) physics. Several recent developments suggested that the time was ripe for a workshop focusing on all facets of NS science. These include: the recent discovery of a 2 solar mass neutron star; evidence for cooling of the NS in Cas A, suggesting a possible transition to neutron superfluidity; ‘advanced’ generation GW detectors LIGO and Virgo coming online in 2015; new observations challenging traditional models for gamma-ray bursts; new lab experiments which aim to probe the conditions of matter at ultrahigh densities and temperatures (e.g. NICA - Dubna); and new or planned electromagnetic observatories at radio (LOFAR/ASKAP/MeerKAT/SKA), optical (e.g. LSST), X-ray (NICER/LOFT/AXTAR/Athena+), and gamma-ray (e.g. CTA) wavelengths. This workshop brought together theoretical and observational astrophysicists from across the electromagnetic and GW spectrum, as well as nuclear physicists interested in the behavior of matter under extreme conditions. The goal was to explore what has been learned from current observations, to review what is expected from new facilities and to assess what exploratory work is required to lay the groundwork for these new capabilities. Throughout the workshop, senior researchers delivered lectures to PhD students, young postdoctoral researchers, and to other senior researchers wishing to expand their own knowledge. Lectures covered topics in high density matter, superfluidity, cooling of neutron stars, explosive phenomena, analysis of data from x-ray satellites, and gravitational wave emission. A general conference was also organized during the workshop and about 150 people took part.

Photonic crystals are periodic dielectric structures, where the periodicity varies on the wavelength scale. Analogous to electrons in semiconductors, the photon propagation can be described using a band structure in which transmission bands are separated by bandgaps, energy ranges at which light cannot exist inside the photonic crystals. This analogy suggests that photonic crystals may be suitable to fabricate the components needed for integrated optics. As yet most of the research done on photonic crystals has been focussed on using these bandgaps. However, many novel properties of light propagating in the transmission bands may also serve this purpose. This thesis studies theoretically and experimentally the light propagation in two dimensional planar photonic crystals with the aim of creating new components for integrated optics. A theoretical model based on Fourier analysis of electromagnetic Bloch waves was developed to describe light propagation in photonic crystals. This model gives an intuitive understanding of the novel phenomena observed in the transmission bands of the photonic crystal: negative refraction, auto-collimation and super-dispersion. This new approach clarifies the fundamental physics of these phenomena enabling their advantages and disadvantages to be easily evaluated for new optical functions; particular attention is paid to auto-collimation. The influence of the structural properties of the photonic crystal (lattice type, filling factor, etc.) is also studied and has been used to create two integrated optic components: a light condenser and a wavelength demultiplexer. The theoretical predictions have been tested experimentally on two dimensional planar photonic crystals fabricated in heterostructure GaAs/AlxGa1-xAs. The fabrication of these photonic crystals was the first experimental work undertaken in this thesis. Advanced microfabrication techniques enabled the fabrication of planar photonic close to those of the state-of-the-art. The optical properties of the fabricated photonic crystals fabricated were studied using the internal light source technique. This method uses photoluminescence generated by quantum wells or quantum dots as an internal light source to probe the optical properties of the photonic crystals. Initially the experimental setup was designed to study the bandgaps. However after some modifications the transmission bands could also be investigated. Another experimental improvement made was the introduction of a technique using coupled waveguides which reduces the losses by a factor of 10 and allowed the light in the photonic crystals to be studied over long distances. Adding a spatially resolved vertical detection, enabled the analysis of the light diffracted out of the plane in order to measure the propagation losses and to map the electromagnetic field. These two modifications were used to study components for integrated optics based on photonic crystals: waveguides and auto-collimators.