Tragedy in the Balkans: A conflict ended — or interrupted?

We explored the diversification of the southern European Euphorbia verrucosa alliance applying molecular (amplified fragment length polymorphism fingerprinting [AFLP], sequencing of the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer), karyological (relative genome size estimations, chromosome counts) and morphometric methods. The AFLP data inferred four main phylogenetic lineages corresponding to western‐southern Balkan E. montenegrina, central Balkan E. serpentini, northern Balkan‐central European‐north Italian E. verrucosa and Iberian‐southern French E. flavicoma. Genetic diversification is strongest within the Iberian and the Balkan peninsulas, suggesting Pleistocene persistence of the species in different micro‐refugia. In contrast, weak genetic structure in E. verrucosa suggests Holocene (after last glacial maximum) expansion to central and western Europe, likely from a northern Balkan refugium. Karyological data provide evidence for tetraploidisation events in E. flavicoma and E. montenegrina, but not in E. verrucosa and E. serpentini. By integrating phylogenetic data with multivariate morphometric analyses, we propose a new taxonomic treatment for this group, mainly by recognising the Balkan endemics E. montenegrina and E. serpentini as independent species and by redefining the distributions of E. flavicoma and E. verrucosa. Our study underlines the importance of the Balkan and Iberian peninsulas as major Pleistocene refugia.

Early warning and epidemic intelligence in the Mediterranean region and Balkan countries: an EpiSouth network challenge

There is much research indicating the presence of a parental preference for a particular gender of children. The main objective of this paper is to test between the two main explanations for the existence of such preference, namely differences in the costs of raising sons and daughters versus the gender bias (corresponding to parental utility derived from a child's gender or from characteristics exclusive to that gender). First, we use recent EU-SILC data from several Balkan and Scandinavian countries to confirm that the gender of the firstborn predicts the likelihood of a given family having three children or more -a common measure of parental gender preference. We confirm son preference in certain Balkan countries and daughter preference in Scandinavian countries. Both having a first child of the preferred gender and of the more costly gender can decrease the probability of having three or more children because parents may already be content or may lack sufficient resources, respectively. Next, we use information on household consumption to differentiate the two explanations. We argue that under the differential cost hypothesis, parents of children of the more costly gender should spend more on goods for children and less on household public goods as well as on parental personal consumption. In contrast, having children of the preferred gender should increase spending on household public goods since such families have higher marriage surplus and are more stable. Our evidence corroborates the cost difference explanation in countries exhibiting daughter preference.

This article concerns European cigarette smuggling over the past decade and examines the actors, structures and relationships which facilitated the illicit trade. It discusses the central role played by actors not traditionally associated with organised crime, such as multi-national tobacco companies, Swiss banks and the state security agencies of various Balkan states. It demonstrates how domestic legislation in Switzerland and instability in the Balkans prevented national law enforcement agencies from effectively dealing with this international network at an earlier stage. The article also focuses on the history of local and national law enforcement investigations as well as the integrated multi-national investigation project later initiated by the EU and member states. The article's conclusions suggest that while smuggling actors have successfully adapted to the process of globalisation – financial and state deregulation – law enforcement agencies remain at a disadvantage as they are hampered by the domestic legislation in nation states such as Switzerland and the United States. While cigarette smuggling was and is a major illicit industry, it has not been the subject of much academic scrutiny. This article, based on field research in the Balkans and EU member states aims to contribute to a broader understanding of a problem involving a multiplicity of criminal actors, states and law enforcement agencies.

The Western Balkan region has significantly improved in terms of innovation performance in the\nlast ten years. However, in catching up with other European regions, the focus of innovation efforts\nshould be enhanced. Exports are still far more focused on medium- and low-technology products.\nInnovative efforts mostly accommodate traditionally strong sectors, which do not necessarily reflect\nthe ideal competitiveness paths for economies in the region. Although some Western Balkan\neconomies record increases in patent activity, patent intensity in the region is still low, while, on the\nother hand, scientific publication production displays a stable growth trend.\nWhile Western Balkan economies are at different stages in the formation of research and innovation\n(R&I) policy governance systems, national research and innovation policy frameworks are\ncontinuously being improved. The enhancement of governance in the area of R&I came as the\nresult of increased capacity building activities in the region, as well as of the real needs emerging\nas a result of social and economic transformation. On the other hand, R&I systems in the Western\nBalkan economies need to continue shifting their focus towards businesses to provide better balance\nbetween public and private sector orientation.\nThe Joint Research Centre of the European Commission is committed to supporting the shift in\ninnovation policies and improvement of R&I efforts and governance in the Western Balkan economies\nthrough a number of tools and activities, allowing policy instruments to be matched with\nthe specific needs of the economy. This approach seeks efficient governance mechanisms for R&I\npolicy by reaching out to the business sector and other important actors of the innovation ecosystem.\nIt determines sustainable development directions for economies and ensures the continuity\nof policy monitoring and evaluation cycles. This ambitious challenge is translated into four specific\nlines of activity: (i) the application of the smart specialisation methodology to design and implement\ninnovation strategies; (ii) capacity-building activities for technology transfer, in particular\nthrough specialised workshops, tools and instruments specifically designed to assist the academic\ninstitutions in the regional economies; (iii) support to transnational collaboration and linkages in the\ncontext of EU macro-regional strategies; and (iv) data quality enhancement.\nThe analysis of the development potential of the Western Balkan region in terms of economic,\ninnovative and scientific capabilities in this report is supported with the good practices addressing\nspecific challenges in the region.

Interactions between Turkish and Balkan languages began with Hun raids to Europe and reached a peak level during the Ottoman Period. Even though Balkan languages and Turkish belong to different language families, similarities exist between these languages along with many common words (cognates). This is because these nations shared the same political system from the 14 th century until 1912, and have had common or similar cultures up to now, influencing each other in all aspects of life. As language is a living entity shaped by culture, it is inevitable for cultural interactions resulting from centuries of co-existence to be reflected in language. The purpose of the study is to determine the effects of the similarities between Turkish and Balkan languages on Turkish-learning processes of students from Balkan countries and on their attitude towards Turkish. The study was conducted on a group of students with Balkan nationalities learning Turkish at Istanbul University Language Center. The data was obtained by means of “The Scale of Attitude to Turkish” which was designed by the researcher. In addition, the students involved were individually interviewed so as to determine to what extent similarities between their native languages and Turkish affect their Turkish learning process. It is thought that the results of the study will provide facilitating clues not only for students coming to Turkey from Balkan countries and learning Turkish but also for instructers teaching Turkish.

Invasive species are a major threat to biodiversity and alien herpetofauna already caused conservation problems in Italy and in the world. Pelophylax kurtmuelleri (Gayda, 1940) is a water frog native to Southern Balkans, that was introduced in NW Italy (Liguria) in 1941, from where it has spread to Piedmont, Lombardy and recently to Emilia Romagna. Surprisingly, during its expansion, the Balkan frog seemed not to be able to cross the Po River (with a single exception). So, we investigated the reasons for such directional limitation of range expansion, focusing on the potential role of the Po River. Combining ecological niche and connectivity models, we adopted a two-step process in order to assess: (i) if the habitat suitability differs between the two sides of the Po Plain; (ii) if the Po River could act as a barrier in terms of dispersal. Results showed that the northern side of the plain seems less suitable than the southern one, even if many suitable patches occur along the main left tributaries of the Po River and in the hilly part of the plain. The Po River behaves like a barrier for the Balkan frog, but the only known point on the north bank of the river indicates that it may be able to only slow the dispersal and not to completely stop it. So, the most probable interpretation for the absence of the Balkan frog from the Northern Po Plain, is the combination of habitat suitability and connectivity issues: the former makes less probable that new viable populations can establish in the North, the latter decreases the northwards flux of the frogs. Given these findings, the Balkan frog seems able to spread in the whole Northern Italy and the colonization of the northern Po plain could happen shortly.

For ten turbulent years, from 1991 to 1999, high intensity armed conflicts, which had devastating effects on the relationship between the inhabitants, broke out in Kosovo. While it is not the purpose of this paper to present a comprehensive overview of the recent history of the Balkans, and Former Yugoslavia in particular, focusing on certain facts and events will enable us to understand the conditions for the formation of new countries after the disintegration of Yugoslavia. Among those language, identity, relations with the other and interreligious dialogue are extremely delicate and political issues. With a reference to interreligious dialogue this paper seeks to present the characteristics of the relations between Muslims and Christians in the Balkans. In this regard, firstly, I will focus on the meaning and significance of dialogue in the Balkans and then deal with Qur’anic approach to the dialogue. After discussing the barriers set against the dialogue in the Balkans, and particularly ideological prejudices among them, I will analyse the possibilities to build collaboration between the Balkan Muslims and Christians in the face of new world challenges.

Little information exists regarding the geomorphologic characteristics, spatial distribution and genesis and activity of rock glaciers in the Balkan Peninsula. A total of 224 rock glaciers were identified in four major mountainous regions (Dinaric Alps, Rila and Pirin, North Macedonia, Pindus and Parnassus), covering a total of 16.74 km2. Most of the rock glaciers are considered relict and have fronts between 1412 and 2645 m. In the Balkan Peninsula, rock glaciers are not uniformly distributed, but rather concentrate in several mountain ranges (e.g. Pirin, Rila, Prokletije and Śar). Climate, elevation, aspect and lithology are the key factors controlling rock glaciers’ distribution in the study area. The vast majority of the rock glaciers (73%) are concentrated in the northern quadrant. Statistical analysis revealed that the size of the rock glaciers can be explained to a certain degree by the characteristics of the contributing area (e.g. its extent and elevation range), climate, aspect, altitude and slope. In Pirin Mountains the density of the rock glaciers and the mean specific area are considerably higher than in the other mountain ranges. Based on palaeoclimate reconstructions and climatological records we infer that at least three generations of rock glaciers developed in the Balkan Peninsula. It is hypothesized that above the 0°C isotherm of mean annual air temperature in the Rila and Pirin Mountains, intact rock glaciers may survive to present-day climatic conditions.

BackgroundThe significance of sustainable energy development and the battle against climate change continues to grow each year. Countries exhibiting unsustainable fossil fuel consumption practices are actively pursuing strategies to decrease import dependency and mitigate pollution through innovative approaches in their energy policies. In this context, the countries aim to rely primarily on their own direct and indirect energy resources. Identifying and using new resources to secure clean energy represents one of the strategic approaches to achieving the established objective. The focus is on using resources that have the greatest potential and whose exploitation aligns with the economic capabilities of the countries. The Western Balkan countries have relied on substantial coal use for decades, resulting in significant pollution emissions, but they lack the capacity to invest in specific renewable energy alternatives. Upon examining the potential, it is evident that the most significant opportunity for acquiring clean energy in the region is found in the biomass sourced from forestry and agriculture. The exploitation of agroforestry systems facilitates carbon sequestration, in addition to various beneficial outcomes. The Western Balkan region boasts abundant forests and lands conducive to the implementation of agroforestry systems, which hold considerable, yet untapped, potential for clean energy generation. This paper aims to review and synthesize knowledge regarding agroforestry in the Western Balkan countries, assess the capacity of forest and agroforestry resources, and identify essential activities that can promote their more intensive yet sustainable use.Main textThe potential of using agroforestry as a source of bioenergy has not been sufficiently explored in the Western Balkans. Therefore, the research was conducted by examining the scientific literature and pertinent statistical indicators. The literature search covered 85 scientific references, encompassing conference proceedings, abstracts, and additional valuable resources. This expanded reference base provided a solid foundation for analyses and discussions on agroforestry in the Western Balkan region. Following that, an analysis of the forest potential and prior experiences in energy production from forest biomass in five Western Balkan countries was conducted and presented. The analysis revealed that the share of forests and forest biomass in the region’s total territory is the lowest in Albania (37.5%) and the highest in Bosnia and Herzegovina (61.1%). This signifies a substantial biomass potential that is underused, while agroforestry systems exist in rural regions only in a few areas that satisfy the requirements of individual households. The systematic collection of biomass from the agroforestry system and its usage for clean energy generation are at a minimal level. Furthermore, the examination of the regulatory framework demonstrates the importance of developing policies and incentive mechanisms that recognize agroforestry as a method of obtaining biomass and ensuring food and water security. Therefore, a model of the supply chain and the main elements of the agroforestry–agriculture–energy nexus is proposed as a starting point for enhancing cross-sectoral cooperation and the sustainable use of forest resources.ConclusionsThe main findings presented in this paper could benefit the Western Balkan countries seeking to enhance sustainable energy development approaches. Given the substantial forest and land resources and favorable climatic conditions in the Western Balkan region, forthcoming strategies must incorporate the formulation and implementation of effective agroforestry policies, as well as their integration into energy policy and sustainable development plans.

This article aims to analyze the European Union as a security actor in the Western Balkans region after 1990—a period in which many imbalances in the security architecture challenged the capabilities of the European Union. The Kosovo case would be a perfect example in which the European Union demonstrated significant progress, transitioning from a passive actor in the 1990s to an essential actor with the will to improve its security presence in Kosovo and the Western Balkans region. The European Union’s security actorness in the Western Balkans after 1990 will be analyzed under two aspects: vertical and horizontal. The first aspect is the “Vertical Aspect,” which considers the European Union as a security actor in the Western Balkan region and the Western Balkans countries as security consumers. Meanwhile, the second aspect is the “Horizontal Aspect,” which involves examining the bilateral relations between the European Union and Western Balkans countries as partners and security providers, with a double-sided interaction. Keywords: security policies, stability Western Balkans, regional stability, European Union.

The People's Republic of China, along with the United States and the Russian Federation, has become a great power in international affairs as a result of its significant economic expansion in recent decades, as well as the strengthening of its military force and pronounced political influence. What distinguishes China in the global order is its developing soft power, which profiles it as a desirable partner for cooperation. In other words, China is economically and politically "present" in every corner of the world, and in the last decade, more than ever before in the Balkans. China's relations with the Balkan countries are improving and becoming more substantial, and they are most developed with Serbia. The paper will explore the elements of China's "soft power" and how it is used in cooperation with the Balkan countries, as well as the reasons that set Serbia apart in cooperation with China in relation to other Balkan countries. An attempt will be made to answer the questions about the benefits of the Balkan countries' cooperation with China, why the US and the EU have a negative attitude towards China's cooperation with the Balkan countries, and whether such a relationship is motivated solely by economic reasons or other geopolitical interests.

Bats are hosts to a number of ectoparasites-acarines (ticks, chiggers, other mites), bat flies, and fleas. Bat ectoparasites might have significant ecological and public health importance as they may be potential vectors of zoonotic agents. It is important to identify their distribution, diversity, and host-parasite associations. Bat ectoparasites in the central Balkans have been largely understudied. The present research was conducted in 45 localities at the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia. In total, 1,143 individuals of 18 species of bats have been examined for the presence and abundance of ectoparasite species during 3 yr of research. In total, 21 ectoparasite species have been identified: three species of ticks, seven species of mites (including one species of chigger), eight species of bat flies, and three species of fleas. In total, 80 host-parasite associations have been identified. The largest number of ectoparasites parasitized primarily only one host species. The highest total number of hosts was identified for ectoparasite species Ixodes vespertilionis Koch, Nycteribia schmidlii Schiner, and Spinturnix myoti Kolenati. The spinturnicid mite Spinturnix psi Kolenati was the most abundant ectoparasite species and together with Penicilidia dufouri Westwood the most widely distributed species of bat ectoparasite, being present at 21 localities in the central Balkans. The presented data include the first systematic records of patterns of prevalence, mean intensity, mean abundance, and host specificity for bat ectoparasites in the central Balkans.

The Balkan Wars and Nationality Problems The Balkan Wars are one of the important headstones of both Turkish and the Balkan History. As a result of these wars; besides loosing some of her lands, Ottoman State also encountered the problem of loosing some of her subjects as they were changing nationality. This case which we call as nationality problems came to order in the treaties which were concluded after the wars. After negotiations, subjects were given an option to choose the State, of which they wanted to have the nationality. Some of them chose to stay under Ottoman nationality and migrated to other places in Ottoman State. And the others left the Ottoman lands and nationality. Our study involves nationality problems which Ottoman State encountered after the Balkan Wars and process of resolving the issue

1. War and change in the Balkans Brad K. Blitz 2. Yugoslavia: state construction and state failure George Schopflin 3. The politics of national homogeneity Ivo Banac 4. Milo evic's motiveless malignancy Srdja Popovic 5. Germany and the recognition of Slovenia and Croatia Daniele Conversi 6. From Bosnia to Kosovo and beyond: mistakes and lessons Kemal Kurspahic 7. American cooperation with the international criminal tribunal for the former Yugoslavia: 1994-9 William A. Stuebner 8. The European Union's international role in the Balkans Fraser Cameron 9. The disintegration of Yugoslavia, Macedonia's independence and stability in the Balkans Andrew Rossos 10. The war in Croatia Branka Magas 11. Negotiating peace in Croatia: a personal account of the road to Erdut Peter Galbraith 12. The fall of Srebrenica David Rohde 13. The war over Kosovo Noel Malcolm 14. Kosovo and the prognosis for 'humanitarian war' Mark Bartolini 15. The international administration of Kosovo since 1999 Bryan Hopkinson 16. The dissolution of Yugoslavia: state-building and Greek exceptionalism Thanos Veremis 17. Turkey, south-eastern Europe and Russia Ali Karaosmanoglu 18. In search of Bulgaria's new identity: the role of diplomacy 1989-99 Philip Shashko 19. Albania, Italy and Greece: some geopolitical considerations Carole Hodge 20. New beginnings? Refugee returns and post conflict integration in the former Yugoslavia Brad K. Blitz.