Transformative Pedagogy in Preparing Teachers through the Study of Immigrant Experiences

ABSTRACT: This paper analyzed elementary TED (Teacher Education) programs in the top performing TIMSS ( Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study ) Asian, i.e. Japan, South Korea, and Singapore countries to explore how much emphasis should be placed on general content knowledge, versus general pedagogical knowledge, and versus methodological pedagogical knowledge. Three theoretical frames of reference were analyzed during this process: whether the programs were consecutive or concurrent; the model of partnership followed between universities and field experience institutions; and the overall status of teachers in the society as categorized by position-based or career-based. Methodologically, only peer-reviewed literature published between 2000 and 2018 was used. It was found that the top performing Asian TIMSS countries usually: have consecutive and concurrent options; provide very intensive TED experiences to their students focusing on diverse and practical field experiences; place more emphasis on academic subject expertise than pedagogy; require students to major in at least one academic subject; have national accreditation institutes for unifying standards; their sponsor countries enforce various types of induction and professional development once in the field; offer salaries competitive with other professions that require the same amount of years and training; and, most importantly, only accept the top academic achievers into their programs. One of the recommendations is that since Saudi Arabia has just initiated “Vision 2030”, a sort of privatization schema for the entire economy, it seems higher selection criteria will be critical to TED in line with this national vision. KEY WORDS: Teacher Education; Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study ; Asian Countries; Comparative Study. About the Author: Dr. Mohammed Sabrin is an Assistant Professor at the College of Education, Taibah University, Office SB-29, College of Education Building B-13, Al-Madinah al-Munawwarah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. E-mail: msabrin@taibahu.edu.sa Suggested Citation: Sabrin, Mohammed. (2018). “A Comparative Policy Analysis of Elementary Teacher Education in the Top Performing Asian TIMSS Countries” in EDUCARE: International Journal for Educational Studies , Volume 11(1), August, pp.1-16. Bandung, Indonesia: Minda Masagi Press owned by ASPENSI with ISSN 1979-7877 (print) and ISSN 2621-587X (online). A rticle Timeline : Accepted (February 17, 2018); Revised (May 2, 2018); and Published (August 30, 2018).

A decade on, the situation portrayed in the influential report of a deteriorating US science and technology ecosystem has, if anything, worsened.

In East Asian countries, shadow education has long existed as an alternative form of education alongside public schooling to enhance academic achievement. This system of shadow education includes personalized preparation for high school and university entrance exams via home-based individual tutoring (gawoe), group learning (hakwon), and online learning. Shadow education is a supplementary “learning space”—in the sense proposed by Davies and Aurini (2006)—that permeates the K-12 education of students in East Asian countries. When examining students' academic success and learning culture, the meaning, value, and impact of shadow education should be discussed. Theorizing Shadow Education and Academic Success in East Asia: Understanding the Meaning, Value, and Use of Shadow Education by East Asian Students by Kim and Jung presents the first international study introducing Western scholars to the contribution of shadow education to the world-class academic achievements of East Asian students on international tests such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). Furthermore, the theoretical approach and empirical data used in this book provide a comprehensive framework to help readers understand the role of shadow education, offering insights into the academic success of East Asian students through ethnographic and qualitative research methods. This book is divided into three parts. Part 1 establishes a new theoretical ground of shadow education through the lens of transboundary learning culture and East Asian students' nomadic identities, revisiting the dominant discourse on shadow education and uncovering its defining characteristics. It explores how shadow education is applied to facilitate the academic success of East Asian students through an analysis of empirical data. This part induces a shift in the perception of the power and influence of shadow education, which has previously been portrayed negatively in the works of both Eastern and Western educational scholars. Part 2 documents case studies of shadow education in five East Asian countries—South Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore—written by scholars specializing in each country, exploring how shadow education is embedded within learning cultures that enhance students' academic achievement. This book forms the first academic effort in which leading scholars from each country introduce the learning culture associated with shadow education in relation to the academic achievement and self-development of elementary, middle, and high school students in the East Asian context. Part 3 highlights three negative impacts of shadow education on students' educational growth and future success: (1) shadow education widens the learning gap between slow and fast learners, (2) its hidden curriculum negatively influences students, and (3) it reproduces inequality based on meritocracy and social class. The authors extend general issues of educational inequality and learning gaps in public education to practices of shadow education, calling on educational scholars in various fields—such as curriculum studies, sociology of education, educational anthropology, and educational policy—to discuss solutions and policy implementation necessary to address the three issues. The authors reinvent Western definitions of East Asian learning culture and methods using postmodern concepts such as “de-truth,” “students as nomads,” and “learning culture beyond borders.” This book is, therefore, an ethnographic anthology on the academic success of East Asian students facilitated by shadow education. By examining postcolonial cases, the book effectively explains the diversity and important aspects of East Asian students' learning methods and cultures for academic success using ethnographic and qualitative research (Kim et al. 2020). A limitation of this book is its somewhat narrow perspective that focuses only on East Asia. Therefore, it would be beneficial to include a broader comparative perspective that encompasses other regions, such as Southeast Asia or South Asia, where private education is also widespread. This could help strengthen the argument that private education is a global phenomenon with diverse regional manifestations. This book, which positions shadow education as a cultural and social practice, provides a new framework for understanding how education operates outside formal education systems. The focus on East Asian students' experiences and perceptions offers valuable insights into how educational practices are shaped by cultural and social expectations. This book can serve as a valuable resource for understanding shadow education as an alternative learning space facilitating the academic success of East Asian students, a topic that has not been seriously discussed or theorized in Western educational scholarship. Thus, this anthology could help Western scholars determine the factors underlying the superior academic achievements of East Asian students in tests such as PISA and TIMSS. Broadly speaking, the postcolonial research presented in this book can effectively shift the anthropological research focus from Western-centered student learning and academic development to more diverse, non-Western, and multicultural contexts. This study was supported by the KU Research Professor Program of Konkuk University.

Large-scale international assessment studies such as Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) or Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) provide researchers and policy makers the opportunity to conduct secondary analyses to answer questions related to educational outcomes and compare the impact of certain inputs on student outcomes across countries. These comparisons are made under the assumption that the questionnaire items translated to different languages are understood in the same way by its participants. Presenting a case from Turkey, this paper shows that equivalency of questionnaire items is not always achieved. The case explores demographic information related to teacher preparation and the sample is drawn from eighth grade science and mathematics teachers participated in TIMSS 2007, 2011, and 2015 in Turkey. Descriptive analysis of data collected from these teachers and comparisons across subjects and years show that teachers may have misunderstood a question regarding their major, thus limiting potential claims related to teacher preparation in Turkey. Researchers and policy analyst who use secondary data collected by international assessment studies should be aware of such comparability issues in adapted items prior to conducting any secondary analyses.

A number of East Asian education systems (e.g. Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, Shanghai, Singapore and Taiwan) have gained international prominence over the years, due to their rapid climbs to top positions in international tests such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) and Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). For example, Hong Kong was placed 17th in PIRLS reading literacy, and Singapore ranked 15th in 2001, but within 5 years, they garnered 2nd and 4th places in 2006, respectively. In the 2015 PISA results, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taipei, Japan and Beijing-Shanghai-Jiangsu-Guangzhou (B-S-J-G), China, were top achievers (OECD, Report on PISA 2015: results in focus. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2016).

Poor mathematics performance was generally reported from international assessments such as Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) among Malaysian students. Malaysia is ranked 52nd and 48th in the assessments for 2012 and 2018 respectively, while Singapore, Japan, South Korea, and even Vietnam have consistently performed well and held the top spots among the 78 countries evaluated in the PISA. Although numerous new technologies have been introduced, developed and implemented for education, incorporation of IT capability (ITC) to teach and learn Mathematics where still lacking commonly. Additionally, learning Mathematics in the traditional teaching contents could not accomplish desired learning outcomes because of dry contents and dull teachers. Therefore, this study is to design an appropriate ITC framework for improving learning experience and academic achievement of learning Mathematics. This study has adopted the development model of Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation (ADDIE) and Mayer (2010)’s cognitive theory for multimedia instructional content design. This study developed a new Multimedia Probability and Statistics system (MMPASS) for a subject of Probability and Statistics. The developed topics were concepts of discrete random variables and probability distribution function which were puzzled by students from preliminary study. An experiment was conducted with both control and experimental groups. The developed MMPASS blended multiple influential multimedia elements in the learning contents. A quantitative method and proportional stratified sampling were used to collect data. The blended topics were used by the experimental group whilst the control group was solely learning using the existing learning contents. Questionnaires were distributed to both groups after the lessons. 66 students participated in this survey. The collected data was then analysed and an ITC model was formed. Results of this study show that Perceived System Quality, Perceived Information Content Quality and Perceived System Performance as independent variables significantly improved learning experience. The findings also reveal that the performances of the experimental group have a higher mean score (9.65/10.00) compared to the control group (8.03/10.00), indicating the use of MMPASS improved students’ learning performance in subjects that involve understanding of concepts. While there is a lack of established ITC framework and IT application for Mathematics education in Malaysia, this study has verified the use of ITC improving performance of learning Mathematics in Malaysia.

Education systems can be conceptualized as the scaffolding that supports the construction and development of student competences. Among other things, the size, location, and learning resources of schools can affect how efficient that system is at delivering the required support. Data from international large-scale assessments have indicated that the resources of rural schools may differ from those of urban schools; students in schools in urban and more economically developed environments often demonstrate higher achievement. Data from IEA’s Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2019 from across the Dinaric region provides information on variations in the size of schools and allocation, student achievement, and the different kinds of scaffolding/support for learning in urban and rural schools. Secondary analyses of the TIMSS 2019 data for the Dinaric region, taking into account home and school factors, show that the types of support available for student learning differed between urban and rural schools. The findings suggest that policymakers should focus on improving the learning resources available to rural schools across the region, particularly in response to their lack of technological resources for developing students’ digital competencies. Concomitant investment is required for the development of teachers’ competencies for the effective use of such educational resources. Educators need to compensate for lack of family support for some students; in such situations, schools need to enhance the scaffolding for learning available to children.KeywordsAchievement gapGrade fourLocation of schoolScaffoldingTrends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)

South African learner achievement remains poor, despite large investment in schooling over the last two decades. Literature and research findings offer no single explanation or solution. In this article, the authors explored the relative contribution of specific language factors such as the role of home- and school-language equivalence, cultural and economic capital, and other school and classroom factors to Science achievement. The analysis identified specific language and/or contextual factors having the biggest influence on learner achievement. This was achieved through secondary analysis of South African Grade Nine (N = 12,000) data from the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2011. Multiple-regression modelling using contextual and achievement data suggested that home- and school-language equivalence and how frequently learners used the school language at home were strongly associated with the Science achievement results of Grade Nine learners in South Africa. Several other language factors that could be seen as cultural capital, beyond broader economic capital, some classroom-related contextual conditions and selected school-level factors, also showed strong influences. It is concluded that language, teacher training, and broader economic policy changes and their thorough implementation are required to address these concerns.

We are very pleased to write this introductory paper to the special issue of ZDM that provides readers with a glimpse of mathematics education in Korea. In July 2012 (7th–15th), the 12th International Congress on Mathematical Education (ICME-12) takes place at COEX in the center of Seoul, Korea. The ICME is the most important congress in the mathematics education community. It is held once every 4 years under the auspices of the International Commission of Mathematical Instruction (ICMI). The impetus for having this special issue during ICME-12 arose from the scarcity of literature on Korean mathematics education despite Korean students’ high achievement on international comparison studies. Korean students have consistently performed well in recent international assessments of mathematics achievement such as the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), the OECD Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), and the International Mathematics Olympiad. In addition, a recent study titled Mathematics Teaching in the 21st Century (MT21) compared prospective teachers’ knowledge and beliefs about teaching and learning in six participant countries, reporting that Korean prospective secondary mathematics teachers were better prepared than those in other countries (Schmidt et al., 2007; Schmidt, Blomeke, Tatto, 2011). Despite such outstanding performances of Korean students and prospective teachers, very little literature is available on factors that contribute toward it. In addition relatively little is also written about mathematics education in Korea. Many scholars, particularly in the West, are curious about Korea’s excellence in teacher quality and student achievement (e.g. Akiba, LeTendre, & Scribner, 2007; Kang & Hong, 2008). There are, however, a relatively small set of systematic studies that examine various aspects of Korean mathematics education substantively and carefully (Kwon, Park, & Park, 2011). Further, some studies on Asian education have even mistakenly assumed that mathematics education in Korea is almost the same as that in other East Asian countries (e.g., Leung, 2011). Considering teaching and learning as cultural practices (e.g., Alexander, 2000; Fernandez & Yoshida, 2004; Ma, 1999; Stigler & Hiebert, 1999), this could mislead readers to ignore the uniqueness of mathematics education in Korea. As a historical–cultural construct, educational practice of mathematics is situated in a specific cultural context of South Korean society, where there are a range of unique cognitive and normative assumptions around the functions and purposes of education, the kinds of knowledge pursued in school and society, the roles taken by teachers and students. Thus, this special issue not only overviews major aspects of Korean mathematics education, it also addresses the historical and cultural foundations of Korean mathematics education in order to foster an understanding of its practices. This issue, a thematic collection of studies, consists of nine papers that present and discuss emerging issues and challenges of Korean mathematics education with respect to various aspects of mathematics education such as curriculum, teaching practices, student learning, textbooks, assessment, and teacher education. It makes an important contribution by Korean mathematics educators to the international community. O. N. Kwon (&) S. J. Cho Department of Mathematics Education, College of Education, Seoul National University, Gwanak-ro 1, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 151-748, Korea e-mail: onkwon@snu.ac.kr

The goal of this research is to investigate the level of students' achievement in science and how can we make it easy and competent by taking the feedback from NASA, TIMMS and PISA to develop scientific literacy in Nepal. It provides the criteria to judge progress towards the science education vision of scientific literacy for all. Stratified random sampling was done to pursue this study to select the sampled schools and the students. The sample size for this assessment was 44067 students, including 48% boys and 52% girls from the 1199 randomly selected schools of 28 sample districts, representing each strata of population. The results of the international assessment like Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) is compared with the result of this study. The average achievement score in science is 41%, which is very low in comparison to international tests and standards.Nepal government need to improve the condition of scientific literacy through the medium of science education.

This article aims to characterize the large-scale assessments implemented in Latin America, of which Brazil is a participant, problematizing the quality that such assessment tools inflict on school education. This is a documentary research based on information available on the website of the National Institute of Studies and Educational Research Anísio Teixeira (INEP). The following assessments are described and analyzed: Comparative and Explanatory Regional Study (ERCE); Progress in Reading International Study (PIRLS); Program for International Student Assessment (PISA); and Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). We conclude that the quality of school education is central to these assessments, generally translated into scores obtained by students’ performance on standardized tests, forming a notion of quality almost exclusively associated with the results of school learning, even though contextual questionnaires accompany these assessments. Furthermore, the characterization of large-scale assessment initiatives present in Latin America reveals the increasingly robust interest of international organizations in creating instruments capable of measuring student learning, enabling the comparison of the quality of school education between and within educational systems.

This paper aims to highlight whether the data obtained by PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) and TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study) survey is utility for the improvement of assessment in Indonesia. With regard to the data got from related literature it is found that there are some utilizes that Indonesian can learn from other countries such as Singapore to improve its assessment system in education, especially with regard to Ujian National (National Examination) that until today still becomes a big issue. Accordingly, there are five positive information that can be utilized and can be used as the strating point to build up good assessment in education system in Indonesia. First, about the system of conducting Ujian National. In term of that the government should pay attention on the ability of the students overall, not only in urban area but also in rural area. Second, about the environment. Here, the government should create a fair circumstance in examination setting. Third, about culture. Fourth, about time management. With regard to this the government should pay attention on the students schedule for preparing Ujian National. Finally, about administration system. Relating to this government should pay attention on the administration system to avoid corruption of time, cheating and many other problems.

The aim of this article is to present a systematic, holistic evaluation of the South African education system, using international benchmarks as the yardstick. A theoretical model for the evaluation of a national education project is constructed. This consists of three dimensions, namely: a quantitative dimension, a qualitative dimension, and an equality dimension. International databases and the existing international taxonomies of national education systems are then used to evaluate the South African education system, along the three dimensions of the model. It is found that the weakest links are the facts that primary and secondary education enrolment ratios are not followed through to the higher education level; that input, particularly financial input, does not render a commensurate return in terms of the quality of teaching and learning, and learning outcomes; that the administrative component of the system and teacher input appear to be the two weak links in the system in this regard; and that stark inequalities exist in the education system. In conclusion, some recommendations for the improvement of practice and for further research are made. Keywords : educational quality; equal educational opportunities; International Association of Educational Achievement (IEA) studies; international classifications of national education systems; Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) studies; Second Information Technology in Education Study (SITES) study; South African education system; Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) studies

Mathematics problem-solving is an important skill that students must master in mathematics learning. Without these skills, students find it difficult to solve real-life problems. In this regard, researchers have been interested in the efficacy of problem-solving lessons because problem-solving is a major focus in mathematics education. International assessments such as Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) that test students' problem-solving skills lead to benchmarking studies of problem-solving aspects with countries that have achieved outstanding results. This is a comparative study between Malaysia and South Korea on teaching mathematics problem-solving in secondary schools. A total of 51 South Korean mathematics teachers and 71 Malaysian mathematics teachers were involved in the study. These respondents participated in a survey, and three mathematics teachers from each country were interviewed to gain deeper insights into their teaching of mathematics problem-solving. Questionnaire and interview protocols were used as instruments in this study. The findings show many similarities in the teaching approaches for both countries. Malaysian and South Korean teachers use open-ended and students' daily life problems when teaching problem-solving skills in mathematics classes. Although the teachers use mathematics problems in textbooks or reference books, the level of difficulty in mathematics problems in South Korea is higher than in Malaysia. On top of that, the South Korean Ministry of Education has been focusing on problem-solving in mathematics much longer than the Malaysian curriculum, which began it the 6 <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">th</sup> curriculum.

The results of the PISA (Program for International Student Assessment) survey in 2012-2015 on the achievement of mathematical competencies of Indonesian students showed a significant increase, but the overall achievement was still below the average of the countries belonging to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Furthermore, the results of the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) report showed that many students like and feel good about mathematics, but their confidence in their mathematical abilities was quite low. Many studies reveal the close association of Mathematics Self-Efficacy (MSE) with the performance/achievement of students' mathematical competencies. In 2015, the PISA survey was done using computerization except in 15 countries, one of them was in Indonesia. Therefore, the results of this study are to produce the first computer-based MSE scale developed in Indonesia.