True or false? Cognitive load when reading COVID-19 news headlines: an eye-tracking study

The association between physiological and eye-tracking metrics and cognitive load in drivers: A meta-analysis

Automatic cognitive load evaluation using writing features: An exploratory study

Dysphagia frequently co-occurs with cognitive impairment, suggesting that swallowing may involve cognitive processes. However, the relationship between cognitive load and swallowing performance remains unclear. This study aimed to examine the effects of different levels of cognitive load on swallowing performance under dual-task conditions in healthy adults. Forty-three graduate students (mean age: 24.49 ± 1.63 years, male/female: 22/21) were recruited and performed five tasks: swallowing single task (SST), low-load cognitive single task (STlow), high-load cognitive single task (SThigh), low-load cognitive-swallowing dual task (DTlow), and high-load cognitive-swallowing dual task (DThigh). Here, a dual-task refers to the concurrent execution of a swallowing task and a cognitive task, designed to evaluate the competition for attentional resources and performance trade-offs. The low-load cognitive task consisted of a digit forward-span task, while the high-load cognitive task involved a digit backward-span task, which demands greater cognitive processing complexity and working memory load. Swallowing measures (e.g., swallowing volume) and cognitive task accuracy were recorded, and dual-task cost (DTC) was calculated to evaluate performance changes under dual-task conditions. Swallowing volume differed significantly among SST, DTlow, and DThigh (p < 0.05), with lower volume in DThigh compared to SST (p < 0.05). Cognitive accuracy was significantly lower in DThigh than in DTlow (p < 0.05), indicating greater interference under high cognitive load. The findings confirm that swallowing engages executive function and attentional resources, and suggest that participants prioritize swallowing performance during dual-task conditions by adjusting prefrontal activation patterns rather than increasing overall cortical activation to manage interference. This study provides preliminary evidence for the cognitive involvement in swallowing and highlights the need to consider cognitive load in dysphagia assessment and rehabilitation.

The open and generative nature of multimedia learning environments tends to cause cognitive overload in learners, and cognitive load is difficult for researchers to observe objectively because of its implicit and complex nature. Event-related potentials (ERP), a method of studying potential changes associated with specific events or stimuli by recording the electroencephalogram (EEG), has become an important method of measuring cognitive load in cognitive psychology. Although many studies have relied on ERP output measurements to compare different levels of cognitive load in multimedia learning, the results of the effect of cognitive load on ERP have been inconsistent. In this study, we used a meta-analysis of evidence-based research to quantitatively analyze 17 experimental studies to quantitatively evaluate which ERP component (amplitude) is most sensitive to cognitive load. Forty five effect sizes from 26 studies involving 360 participants were calculated. (1) The results of the studies analyzed in subgroups indicated high level effect sizes for P300 and P200 (2) Analyses of moderating variables for signal acquisition did not find that different methods of signal acquisition had a significant effect on the measurement of cognitive load (3) Analyses of moderating variables for task design found that a task system with feedback was more convenient for the measurement of cognitive load, and that designing for 3 levels of cognitive load was more convenient for the measurement of cognitive load than for 2 levels of cognitive load. (4) Analyses of continuous moderating variables for subject characteristics did not find significant effects of age, gender, or sample size on the results.

Exploring the cognitive loads of high-school students as they learn concepts in web-based environments

The effects of individual differences, prior experience and cognitive load on the transfer of dynamic decision-making performance

The use of multimedia learning is increasing in modern education. On the other hand, it is crucial to design multimedia contents that impose an optimal amount of cognitive load, which leads to efficient learning. Objective assessment of instantaneous cognitive load plays a critical role in educational design quality evaluation. Electroencephalography (EEG) has been considered a potential candidate for cognitive load assessment among neurophysiological methods. In this study, we experiment to collect EEG signals during a multimedia learning task and then build a model for instantaneous cognitive load measurement. In the experiment, we designed four educational multimedia in two categories to impose different levels of cognitive load by intentionally applying/violating Mayer’s multimedia design principles. Thirty university students with homogenous English language proficiency participated in our experiment. We divided them randomly into two groups, and each watched a version of the multimedia followed by a recall test task and filling out a NASA-TLX questionnaire. EEG signals are collected during these tasks. To construct the load assessment model, at first, power spectral density (PSD) based features are extracted from EEG signals. Using the minimum redundancy - maximum relevance (MRMR) feature selection approach, the best features are selected. In this way, the selected features consist of only about 12% of the total number of features. In the next step, we propose a scoring model using a support vector machine (SVM) for instantaneous cognitive load assessment in 3s segments of multimedia. Our experiments indicate that the selected feature set can classify the instantaneous cognitive load with an accuracy of 84.5 ± 2.1%. The findings of this study indicate that EEG signals can be used as an appropriate tool for measuring the cognitive load introduced by educational videos. This can be help instructional designers to develop more effective content.

The inability to perceive a visible but unexpected stimulus is a phenomenon studied in cognitive psychology under the name of inattentional blindness (IB). IB reflects the limited capacity of human attention, as a demanding task may leave few, if any, attentional resources available for an unexpected yet visible stimulus to capture attention. The main cognitive mechanism involved is selective attention, which allows individuals to prioritize information relevant to the task at hand while filtering out irrelevant elements. However, depending on the context, some information may be mistakenly considered as distracting, particularly when it is unexpected. According to load theory, the efficiency of selective attention depends on the level of cognitive and perceptual load during task execution. To date, IB has been primarily explained through the lens of perceptual load, with cognitive load often reduced to executive control tasks. Moreover, the interaction between these two types of load remains underexplored, as does the investigation of IB in applied contexts relevant to everyday activities. To address these gaps, the present study aims to identify the occurrence of IB during manual assembly tasks in industrial settings. A 2x2 within-subject experimental design (N=32) was implemented, independently manipulating perceptual and cognitive load. Participants performed simulated assembly tasks using LEGO components. The main dependent variable was the detection rate of an unexpected stimulus, which was briefly presented on the instruction screen. Results show a significantly higher overall rate of non-detection compared to the control condition. In addition, a high level of either cognitive or perceptual load significantly increased the rate of non-detection. A strong interaction effect between the two types of load was also observed. These findings highlight the importance of considering both cognitive and perceptual load in the design of human-machine interfaces (HMIs), especially when information is delivered dynamically. Inattentional blindness, as a cognitive bias, can affect any individual particularly in high-load environments such as assembly procedures. Modern HMIs increasingly rely on real-time adaptability and contextualized alerts. However, their effectiveness depends on the timely availability of attentional resources, which this study shows to be significantly modulated by task-induced load. Then, a visible but unexpected stimulus may go unnoticed under high load conditions. By demonstrating for the first time the occurrence of IB in an assembly task context, while simultaneously manipulating both types of load, this research reveals limitations of current HMIs and emphasizes the need to integrate this phenomenon into future interface design through a human-centered approach.

Cognitive load theory emphasizes the limited capacity of working memory in processing new information, with excessive cognitive load potentially inhibiting learning outcomes.This study investigated the use of electroencephalography (EEG) signals to interpret cognitive load variation in elementary school students during arithmetic operations in an authentic school environment, addressing gaps in existing research that has primarily focused on adults in laboratory settings.We manipulated the task complexity of mental addition to induce a low and a high complexity level of cognitive load amongst a sample of 82 fourth graders.Self-report cognitive load, task performance, and oscillation-band powers were collected.Our results show that increased cognitive load induced by arithmetic task complexity was associated with increased theta power and theta/alpha ratio, as well as decreased alpha power and low beta power.These findings demonstrate the potential of EEG signals to provide non-disruptive, objective insights into the temporal dynamics of cognitive load in educational settings.

Design representations play a crucial role in facilitating communication between individuals in design. Sketches and physical prototypes are frequently used to communicate design concepts in early-stage design. However, we lack an understanding of the communicative benefits each representation provides and how these benefits relate to the effort and resources required to create each representation. A mixed-methods study was conducted with 44 participants to identify whether sketches and physical prototypes led to different levels of cognitive load perceived by a communicator and listener and the characteristics that shape their cognitive load during communication. Results showed that listeners perceived higher levels of mental and physical demands when understanding ideas as low-fidelity physical prototypes, as compared to sketches. No significant differences were found in the cognitive load levels of communicators between the two conditions. Qualitative analyses of post-task semi-structured interviews identified five themes relating to verbal explanations and visual representations that shape designers’ cognitive load when understanding and communicating ideas through design representations. Results indicate that designers should be aware of the specific objectives they seek to accomplish when selecting the design representation used to communicate. This work contributes to the knowledge base needed for designers to use design representations more effectively as tools for communication.

BackgroundEmergency medicine (EM) physicians sometimes respond to critical events outside the emergency department. To prepare for these complex cases—typically called “rapid responses” (RRs)—EM residents receive simulation‐based training involving four practice tasks and three exam tasks during a 1‐day session. Cognitive load (CL) theory describes how humans function with limited working memories to perform complex tasks. RRs are expected to generate high levels of CL, but the profile of CL across providers and RR cases is not well understood. In this study, we analyzed resident’s CL during RR training. We hypothesized variations in CL across individual and case and that exam cases would cause higher CLs than practice cases.MethodsResidents anonymously self‐reported CL levels after each case using the Paas scale, a single‐item, 9‐point scale from “very, very low CL” to “very, very high CL.” To examine case‐based differences in CL, data were rescaled by individual residents. “High CL” was defined as a score of 9/9.ResultsAmong 18 residents participating, CLs ranged from 4 to 9, with median of 7 and interquartile range of 7–8. While many cases showed bell curve–like distributions of CLs, one case—a bleeding tracheostomy—showed a rightward skew reflecting higher levels of CL. No significant difference was found in CL between practice and exam cases. There were 20 reports (16.5%) of “high” CL with variation across residents (0/7 [0%] to 5/6 [83.3%] cases) and across cases (1/18 [5.6%) to 8/18 [44.4%]).ConclusionsThe CL that EM residents experienced did show considerable interpersonal and intercase variation, but there was no significant difference between practice and exam cases. These results highlight several questions about how to optimally design future training, including how best to balance low and high CL training cases and which cases may require further training.

The current study aimed at investigating the effectiveness of using a proposed virtual environment based on DAISY technology for developing EFL reading comprehension skills of preparatory stage visually- impaired pupils and reducing their cognitive load while reading. Based on the literature review, related studies and content specification of first year prep, seven EFL reading comprehension sub-skills were determined. Two intact groups were assigned as experimental studying reading through the proposed E- environment; and the other as control studying through the traditional method. Instruments of the study included: a reading comprehension test, and a cognitive load scale for measuring those pupils’ cognitive load level before and after the experiment. The content of the units was taught to pupils through the proposed virtual environment. Results revealed that the proposed virtual environment had a great effect on enhancing the pupils’ EFL reading skills and reducing their cognitive load while reading as there were statistically significant differences between each of the pre- and post- administrations of both the reading comprehension test and the cognitive load scale. The study also proposed some recommendations and suggestions for further research. Key Words: DAISY Technology, EFL Reading comprehension skills, Cognitive load, the Visually-Impaired. Introduction: Learning a foreign language is important for everybody, particularly if the person’s native language is not very widespread, and it is a demand for communication in modern cognitive load level before and after the experiment. The content of the units was taught to pupils through the proposed virtual environment. Results revealed that the proposed virtual environment had a great effect on enhancing the pupils’ EFL reading skills and reducing their cognitive load while reading as there were statistically significant differences between each of the pre- and post- administrations of both the reading comprehension test and the cognitive load scale. The study also proposed some recommendations and suggestions for further research. Key Words: DAISY Technology, EFL Reading comprehension skills, Cognitive load, the Visually-Impaired.

Effects of inhibitory control capacity and cognitive load on involuntary past and future thoughts: A laboratory study

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of cognitive load level on students’ attitude towards the gamified course. It was also found out the students’ views regarding the 14-week gamified course. Participants consisted of 66 undergraduate students. 40 of them had low cognitive load level and 26 of them had high cognitive load level. According to the results, gamification enabled students to have a positive attitude towards the course, even though they had different cognitive load levels. Furthermore, it was determined a negative and medium significant correlation between the cognitive load and attitude of students with low cognitive load. The gamified course had a positive effect on the “Valuing” and “Positive Effects” sub-dimensions of the attitude in favor of students with low cognitive load. The positive views of many students in qualitative findings strengthened these results. While the gamified course had a negative effect on the "Resisting" sub-dimension in favor of students with high cognitive load, it did not have any significant effect on the "Cost Belief" sub-dimension. A few negative views of students in qualitative findings supported the items in these dimensions of attitude scale. Consequently, this study will strengthen the few studies examining both cognitive and affective effects of a gamified course on students. However, further studies need to confirm these results. For this reason, it is recommended to carry out such studies that reveal all the situations which can affect the attitude in the gamified course in order to achieve positive outcomes of students with different cognitive load levels.

Background The modality and redundancy principles are well‐established within the cognitive theory of multimedia learning for their effectiveness in traditional media. However, previous studies applying these principles in virtual reality have shown contradictory results when immersive technologies are involved. Objectives This study investigates the effects of modality and redundancy principles from the cognitive theory of multimedia learning on cognitive load and learning outcomes in head‐mounted display augmented reality. Methods Using a between‐subjects experimental design, 104 male participants were randomly assigned to three conditions based on the way verbal instructions related to a T‐shirt folding procedure were presented (audio‐only, text‐only, text‐and‐audio). The presentation of the verbal instructions served as the manipulated variable; cognitive load levels and participants' performance were measured as outcome variables. Bayesian analyses were conducted to verify that there were no significant differences between the text‐and‐audio group and the audio‐only group, and a Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Model (PLS‐SEM) examined the relationship between the experimental condition, cognitive load levels, and participants' performance. Results and Conclusions Results support the validity of the modality principle in head‐mounted display augmented reality, showing that applying the modality principle significantly decreases intrinsic cognitive load and improves learning performances. The null hypothesis was supported by comparing audio‐only and text‐and‐audio conditions for both cognitive load and learning outcomes. These findings suggest that cognitive theory of multimedia learning principles work similarly in head‐mounted display augmented reality as in traditional media, and they offer valuable insights into multimedia learning in immersive augmented reality, extending our understanding of how these principles function in immersive technologies. Contradicting results using immersive technologies could be explained by considering task complexity and perceived intrinsic cognitive load; however, further studies testing different learning materials are necessary to support this hypothesis.