User-centric wireless access virtualization strategies for future 5G networks

The 5G wireless networks are potentially revolutionizing future technologies. The 5G technologies are expected to foresee demands of diverse vertical applications with diverse requirements including high traffic volume, massive connectivity, high quality of service, and low latency. To fulfill such requirements in 5G and beyond, new emerging technologies such as SDN, NFV, MEC, and CC are being deployed. However, these technologies raise several issues regarding transparency, decentralization, and reliability. Furthermore, 5G networks are expected to connect many heterogeneous devices and machines that will raise several security concerns regarding users’ confidentiality, data privacy, and trustworthiness. To work seamlessly and securely in such scenarios, future 5G networks need to deploy smarter and more efficient security functions. Motivated by the aforementioned issues, blockchain was proposed by researchers to overcome 5G issues because of its capacities to ensure transparency, data reliability, trustworthiness, immutability in a distributed environment. Indeed, blockchain has gained momentum as a novel technology that gives rise to a plethora of new decentralized technologies. In this chapter, we discuss the integration of the blockchain with 5G networks and beyond. We then present how blockchain applications in 5G networks and beyond could facilitate enabling various services at the edge and the core.

In order to tackle rapidly increasing traffic, distributed Massive MIMO (DM-MIMO) has been proposed for fifth-generation (5G) mobile communication systems. DM-MIMO coordinates lots of distributed transmission points (TPs) that are located in ultra-high density (UHD) and use various numbers of antenna elements for each TP. It can achieve drastic improvement of areal spectrum efficiency for 5G. It can also dynamically create user-centric virtual cells corresponding to user mobility. To design flexible antenna deployment of DM-MIMO that is applicable to various use cases in 5G, some key parameters such as the number of the distributed TPs, the number of antenna elements for each TP, and proper distance between TPs should be determined. This paper provides such discussion for 5G DM-MIMO with the flexible antenna deployment under fixed total transmission power and constant total number of antenna elements. Computer simulations show that DM-MIMO can achieve more than 2.5 times system throughput in comparison with a Massive MIMO system using 128 antenna elements.

Background. The introduction of fifth-generation (5G) networks creates new opportunities for fast and continuous data exchange, but there are still some problems with the quality of voice services in such networks. With the rapid development of technology and the further spread of 5G, there is a need to understand the impact of key aspects of 5G on voice quality. This requires research that can systematically analyse the features of 5G networks that affect the quality of voice services. Objective. Identification of ways to improve the quality of voice services in 5G networks. Assessment of key indicators of voice service quality in 5G networks. Determination of the best option for the gradual transition to the Standalone mode and the use of VoNR technology in the fifth generation networks. Methods. Analysis of factors affecting the quality of voice services in fifth-generation networks. Analysis of well-known publications on the implementation of 5G networks. Comparison of the implementation of Non-Standalone and Standalone modes in the 5G network. Testing of the modern EVS codec, which provides an opportunity to improve the customer experience. Results. Confirmation that 5G networks can significantly improve the quality of voice services compared to previous mobile communication technologies such as 4G and 3G. Certain factors that may affect the quality of voice services and require additional attention when planning and deploying 5G networks are identified. The optimal steps for the transition to the Standalone mode and the use of VoNR technology in fifth-generation networks are determined. The main differences in the QoS architecture between LTE and 5G are identified, and the purpose of DRB flows for separating traffic types and services is established. Conclusions. It has been confirmed that 5G networks can significantly improve the quality of voice services compared to previous technologies such as 4G and 3G. This is possible due to the broadband capabilities of 5G networks, improved data transmission, low latency, the use of an advanced EVS codec and reduced response time. However, certain factors, such as network coverage, optimisation level and traffic characteristics, can affect the quality of voice services and require additional attention when planning and deploying 5G networks. The QoS management architecture consists of QoS flows, which allow separating packet assignment to flows (managed by the CN) from the assignment of DRB flows (managed by the RAN). As 5G networks are being rolled out gradually, it is important to properly integrate the 5G domain into the existing telecoms provider's network. The transition from Non-Standalone to Dual connectivity is a necessary step for the implementation of VoNR technology in Standalone mode. Using the modern EVS codec allows not only improving the customer experience, but also introducing new voice services.

The fifth-generation (5G) network has revolutionized wireless communication with its promise of ultra-high-speed data transfer, reduced latency, and massive connectivity. However, one of the critical challenges remains efficient resource allocation, especially in Peer-to- Peer (P2P) communications during data transmission. In traditional centralized systems, resource allocation is handled by a base station, but P2P communication in 5G networks can help minimize network congestion and improve resource utilization by directly connecting users. This paper investigates a novel approach to resource allocation in P2P communications, optimizing data transmission through dynamic resource assignment strategies. The method utilizes machine learning algorithms to predict traffic patterns and demand, adjusting resource distribution in real-time to ensure fair and efficient bandwidth allocation. The proposed system prioritizes users based on the Quality of Service (QoS) requirements and the network's current load. The simulation results show that this approach improves throughput by 30%, reduces latency by 25%, and increases overall system efficiency by 18%. In comparison to conventional methods, the proposed model achieves better load balancing and minimizes data packet loss. The system's effectiveness was validated through extensive simulations in a 5G testbed, highlighting its scalability and adaptability in high-density user environments. The results demonstrate that P2P communications, when combined with smart resource allocation, can play a pivotal role in realizing the full potential of 5G networks for data transmission.

The Narrow Band Internet of Things (NB-IoT) system has become an important branch of the Internet of Everything and is an indispensable part in future fifth Generation (5G) network. However, there is currently no effective access authentication scheme for the NB-IoT system in the future 5G network. According to the current 3GPP standard, NB-IoT devices still use the traditional access authentication method to perform the mutual authentication with the network, which may bring a lot of signaling and communication overheads. This problem will be more prominent when sea of NB-IoT devices simultaneously are activated in the 5G network. In this paper, we propose a quantum-resistance access authentication and data distribution scheme for massive NB-IoT devices. This scheme can implement access authentication and data transmission for a group of NB-IoT devices at the same time based on the lattice-based homomorphic encryption technology. Our scheme can not only greatly reduce the network burden, but also can achieve the strong security including privacy protection and resisting quantum attacks. Performance analysis results show that our solution has the desired efficiency.

This chapter describes the support for IP based multimedia services on Third Generation (3G) wireless cellular networks. While earlier cellular networks offered only basic IP connectivity on a best-effort basis, 3G networks provide explicit support for real time multimedia services with guaranteed Quality of Service (QoS). As a result, they can offer traditional voice telephony, rich telephony services and multimedia streaming over IP, both inside a 3G network and in conjunction with external networks such as the Internet, the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) and the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN). In fact, 3G networks will deploy for the first time in a large scale technologies such as IP version 6 (IPv6) and policy based IP QoS, spearheading the introduction of such technologies into the Internet. The two most important aspects of 3G networks with respect to IP based multimedia services are the IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) and the Multimedia Broadcast / Multicast Service (MBMS). The IMS enables complex IP based multimedia sessions to be created with guaranteed QoS for each media component. Example applications include voice telephony and video conferencing. The IMS interoperates with both traditional telephony services and external IP based multimedia services. The MBMS provides native IP broadcast and multicast support in 3G networks, allowing high bandwidth services to be economically offered to multiple users. Example applications include video streaming via multicast and location based services via broadcast. The MBMS interoperates directly with IP multicasting. While both the IMS and the MBMS are IP based, their standardization is proceeding independently. It is however clear that their combination would allow numerous new services to be provided. The outline of this chapter is as follows. In Section II we give an overview of cellular networks and their evolution, while in Section III we describe in detail a specific 3G network, the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS). Section IV presents an introductory description of the features and services provided by the IMS and the MBMS. In Section V we provide the details of the IMS, including service architecture, session setup and control and interworking issues. Section VI describes the MBMS in the same manner as for the IMS. Finally, Section VII discusses the QoS issues for IP based multimedia services, describing the overall QoS concept, the policy based QoS control scheme and its application to IMS sessions. At the end of the chapter, Tables II and III list the acronyms used. An extensive UMTS vocabulary is provided in [1].

The fifth generation (5G) network is expected to be flexible to satisfy quality of service (QoS) requirements, and the software-defined network (SDN) with network slicing will be a good approach for admission control. In this paper, the authors present and compare two fuzzy-based schemes to evaluate the QoS (FSQoS). They call these schemes FSQoS1 and FSQoS2. The FSQoS1 considers three parameters: slice throughput (ST), slice delay (SD), and slice loss (SL). In FSQoS2, they consider as an additional parameter the slice reliability (SR). So, FSQoS2 has four input parameters. They carried out simulations for evaluating the performance of the proposed schemes. From simulation results, they conclude that the considered parameters have different effects on the QoS performance. The FSQoS2 is more complex than FSQoS1, but it has a better performance for evaluating QoS. When ST and SR are increasing, the QoS parameter is increased. But, when SD and SL are increasing, the QoS is decreased. When ST is 0.1, SD is 0.1, SL is 0.1, and the QoS is increased by 32.02% when SR is increased from 0.3 to 0.8.

The significant volume of data traffic, ultimate data rates, reduced latency, more transmissions with efficient energy, spectrum consumption, and novel technological use cases must all be considered using the fifth generation (5G) mobile network. Future 5G networks will connect billions of objects, known as the Internet of Things (IoT) or massive Machine-T Communications (mMTC), in addition to standard Mobile Broadband (MBB) services. Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTNs) may serve connection requests anywhere and anytime by offering wide-area coverage and preserving service continuity, availability, and scalability. The satellite platform is a crucial NTN for integrating with the 5G network and delivering the necessary services. Soon, 5G network development will depend on satellite access, as stated in the 3Gpp Release 16 specification. This paper provides options for incorporating satellite systems into a 5G network design to increase capacity and extend coverage in 5G mobile networks. In addition, 5G networks must address a network model to resolve outage, congestion, and cell edge context issues. The last phase is the simulation of the problem formulation for the investigation of capacity and traffic in hybrid satellite-terrestrial 5G mobile backhauling networks.

A new communication paradigm is foreseen for beyond 2020 society, due to the emergence of new broadband services and the Internet of Things era. The set of requirements imposed by these new applications is large and diverse, aiming to provide a ubiquitous broadband connectivity. Research community has been working in the last decade towards the definition of the 5G mobile wireless networks that will provide the proper mechanisms to reach these challenging requirements. In this framework, three key research directions have been identified for the improvement of capacity in 5G: the increase of the spectral efficiency by means of, for example, the use of massive MIMO technology, the use of larger amounts of spectrum by utilizing the millimeter wave band, and the network densification by deploying more base stations per unit area. This dissertation addresses densification as the main enabler for the broadband and massive connectivity required in future 5G networks. To this aim, this Thesis focuses on the study of the UDN. In particular, a set of technology enablers that can lead UDN to achieve their maximum efficiency and performance are investigated, namely, the use of higher frequency bands for the benefit of larger bandwidths, the use of massive MIMO with distributed antenna systems, and the use of distributed radio resource management techniques for the inter-cell interference coordination. Firstly, this Thesis analyzes whether there exists a fundamental performance limit related with densification in cellular networks. To this end, the UDN performance is evaluated by means of an analytical model consisting of a 1-dimensional network deployment with equally spaced BS. The inter-BS distance is decreased until reaching the limit of densification when this distance approaches 0. The achievable rates in networks with different inter-BS distances are analyzed for several levels of transmission power availability, and for various types of cooperation among cells. Moreover, UDN performance is studied in conjunction with the use of a massive number of antennas and larger amounts of spectrum. In particular, the performance of hybrid beamforming and precoding MIMO schemes are assessed in both indoor and outdoor scenarios with multiple cells and users, working in the mmW frequency band. On the one hand, beamforming schemes using the full-connected hybrid architecture are analyzed in BS with limited number of RF chains, identifying the strengths and weaknesses of these schemes in a dense-urban scenario. On the other hand, the performance of different indoor deployment strategies using HP in the mmW band is evaluated, focusing on the use of DAS. More specifically, a DHP suitable for DAS is proposed, comparing its performance with that of HP in other indoor deployment strategies. Lastly, the presence of practical limitations and hardware impairments in the use of hybrid architectures is also investigated. Finally, the investigation of UDN is completed with the study of their main limitation, which is the increasing inter-cell interference in the network. In order to tackle this problem, an eICIC scheduling algorithm based on resource partitioning techniques is proposed. Its performance is evaluated and compared to other scheduling algorithms under several degrees of network densification. After the completion of this study, the potential of UDN to reach the capacity requirements of 5G networks is confirmed. Nevertheless, without the use of larger portions of spectrum, a proper interference management and the use of a massive number of antennas, densification could turn into a serious problem for mobile operators. Performance evaluation results show large system capacity gains with the use of massive MIMO techniques in UDN, and even greater when the antennas are distributed. Furthermore, the application of ICIC techniques reveals that, besides the increase in system capacity, it brings significant energy savings to UDNs.

Designing quantum blockchain system integrated with 6G network

The dramatic recent increase of the smart Internet of Everything (IoE) in Industry 4.0 has significantly increased energy consumption, carbon emissions, and global warming. IoE applications in Industry 4.0 face many challenges, including energy efficiency, heterogeneity, security, interoperability, and centralization. Therefore, Industry 4.0 in Beyond the Sixth-Generation (6G) networks demands moving to sustainable, green IoE and identifying efficient and emerging technologies to overcome sustainability challenges. Many advanced technologies and strategies efficiently solve issues by enhancing connectivity, interoperability, security, decentralization, and reliability. Greening IoE is a promising approach that focuses on improving energy efficiency, providing a high Quality of Service (QoS), and reducing carbon emissions to enhance the quality of life at a low cost. This survey provides a comprehensive overview of how advanced technologies can contribute to green IoE in the 6G network of Industry 4.0 applications. This survey provides a comprehensive overview of advanced technologies, including Blockchain, Digital Twins (DTs), Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs, a.k.a. drones), and Machine Learning (ML), to improve connectivity, QoS, and energy efficiency for green IoE in 6G networks. We evaluate the capability of each technology in greening IoE in Industry 4.0 applications and analyse the challenges and opportunities to make IoE greener using the discussed technologies.

Very low latency and high reliability are two of the main requirements for new applications exploiting 5G networks. This is the case for the remote operation of robots or vehicles, the autonomous interaction of equipment in a factory, autonomous driving and tactile internet applications. Although the TCP/IP stack has been sufficient as the end-to-end solution for most of the history of the Internet, a number of surveys have appeared recently presenting many different methods for managing the end-to-end communication to meet the requirements of various technologies such as that of 5G networks. In this paper, we present a novel classification of the literature focused on new end-to-end solutions and the creation of services towards the support of low latency (1 ms) and high reliability (10 <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">-9</sup> error rate) in current and future 5G networks. We specifically highlight how the proposals can be classified according to enabling technologies and the specific method used to achieve success in terms of the latency and reliability. The literature related to end-to-end solutions for reliable low-latency communications are organized according to three main topics: (i) end-to-end protocols that improve communication in terms of latency and reliability, (ii) functionality or technologies implemented on the network to support the current demands, and (iii) application programming interfaces that enhance the correct utilization of those protocols and additional technologies.

Technical network challenges in 5G relates to handover authentication, user privacy protection and resource management. Due to interoperability requirements among the heterogeneous networks (Hetnets), the security requirements for 5G are high compared to 2G, 3G and 4G. The current 5G handover protocols are based on either fuzzy logic (FL), artificial neural networks (ANN), blockchain, software defined network (SDN), or Multi-layer Feed Forward Network (MFNN). These protocols have either long latencies or focus on either security or quality of services parameters such as user satisfaction. The usage of these inefficient authentication schemes during 5G handovers lead to performance degradation in heterogeneous cells and increases the delay. In addition, 5G networks experience frequent handover failures and increased handover delays. Consequently, the provision of strong security, privacy and low latency handovers is required for the successful deployment of 5G networks such as 5G wireless local area networks (5G-WLAN) heterogeneous networks. These new requirements, coupled with demands for higher scalability, reliability, security, data rates, quality of service (QoS), and support for internet of everything (IoE) have seen the shift from 5G to beyond 5G (B5G). However, 5G and B5G are incapable of providing the complete requirements of IoE such as enhanced security and QoS. This paper sought to develop an ANN-FL protocol that addressed both security and QoS in 5G and B5G networks. The simulation results showed that the developed protocol was robust against attacks such de-synchronization and tracing attacks and yielded a 27.1% increase in handover success rate, a 27.3% reduction in handover failure rate, and a 24.1% reduction in ping pong handovers.Keywords5GHetnetsAuthenticationPing pong rateHandover success rateHandover failure rates

4 - QoE-based Power Efficient LTE Downlink Scheduler

The consideration of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) trajectory is of crucial importance in the performance evaluation of cellular-connected UAV networks. In this work, we consider a cellular-connected aerial user equipment (AUE) employed for surveillance and monitoring. The AUE moves along a given trajectory, while periodically transmitting to a terrestrial base station (BS) in the uplink, with a specific quality of service (QoS) requirement. To avoid the underutilization of spectrum resources, we enable simultaneous uplink transmissions of the AUE and a terrestrial user equipment (TUE) using power-domain uplink aerial-terrestrial non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA). We take the trajectory of AUE into consideration and develop an analytical framework to compute the total rate coverage probability, i.e., the probability where both AUE and TUE are decoded, at a given transmission point in the trajectory. In addition, we numerically determine the minimum height of AUE to achieve a certain QoS constraint for different AUE target data rates and built-up areas. Our results show that, for a spiral trajectory, the minimum height increases as the AUE moves from cell center to the boundary, and as the severity of the environmental parameters increases.