Using Risk Analysis for Microbial Food Safety Regulatory Decision Making

In 1991 and 1992 the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate issued new regulations concerning use of risk analyses and emergency preparedness analyses in the petroleum industry. This paper presents some of the results from a research project conducted by Statoil Gas Transport and Rogaland Research. The aim of the project was to introduce the principles and intentions in the new regulations at Statoil Gas Transport's facility at Kårstø. Emphasis was put on emergency preparedness analyses and on the process of establishing specific emergency preparedness requirements. The results indicate that these activities can be initiated successfully and produce immediate valuable results when they are based mainly on operational experiences. A method of establishing specific emergency preparedness requirements is presented.

This chapter discusses the usefulness of risk analysis as a tool for decision support. It analyses the findings from two cases, the Deepwater Horizon disaster and the Gullfaks C near-accident and discusses the support that risk analysis can provide in the planning and preparation of operations. Risk analysis is understood to be a structured and documented process where the aim is to identify undesired events and express uncertainty regarding their occurrence and severity. The chapter discusses the Gullfaks C incident and the Deepwater Horizon disaster and highlight aspects of these events relevant to risk analysis. Strategic risk analyses are primarily aimed at developing a safe design and safe operating procedures. Strategic risk analyses tend to focus on technical aspects; operational input is usually limited to measurements of activity levels such as the number of offshore supply vessels visiting the installation, the number of crane lifts and the number of wells drilled.

Despite the fact that in the developed countries food safety standards are higher than ever, food safety incidents continue to occur frequently. The accumulation of food safety incidents might affect general consumer confidence in the safety of food. Therefore, in this thesis, the concept of general consumer confidence in the safety of food is further conceptualised, and embedded within an integrative framework that incorporates both its antecedents and consequences. General consumer confidence in the safety of food is determined by 1) consumer trust in societal actors, 2) consumer recall of food safety incidents and media coverage, 3) the perceived safety of different product groups, and 4) socio-demographic and personality characteristics. The behavioural consequences of general consumer confidence relate to information search and particular food choice behaviours. A measure for general consumer confidence in the safety of food is developed, showing that the construct consists of two distinct, although correlated, dimensions: optimism and pessimism. In the thesis, the construct of general consumer confidence in the safety of food is validated within its nomological network. The results show that optimism and pessimism are activated by different sources, and that consumer trust in societal actors, and consumer perceptions of the safety of meat are the strongest determinants of general consumer confidence in the safety of food. The framework is shown to be stable over time, and found to be applicable to an international context. In terms of the relationship between general consumer confidence in the safety of food and its behavioural consequences, it is shown that consumers low in general confidence in the safety of food are more likely to revert to specific risk relief strategies. A more in depth analysis of the role of trust in societal actors in shaping general consumer confidence in the safety of food, shows that the strength of the relationship between trust and general consumer confidence in the safety of food depends on the specific food chain actor, the specific dimension of trust, as well as the specific combinations between actors and different dimensions of trust. Overall, this thesis has extended existing research that largely focused on consumer perceptions of specific food-related hazards, by developing and validating an integrative framework of general consumer confidence in the safety of food. This research informs stakeholders that share responsibility on food safety about how confidence develops in the complex environment of the food production system, and provides risk managers and communicators, as well as other stakeholders, with important insights and tools to better respond to consumer concerns about food safety issues.

This study examines the influence of a number of key organization characteristics on the extent of use of risk analysis in capital budgeting. A principal objective of this study a to identify those firm specific characteristics and to develop a descriptive contingency model that explain which firm are more likely to use risk analysis in capital budgeting. Questionnaires were distributed to 189 managers that participated in seminar conducted by Asosiasi Manajemen Indonesia (AMA) in Bandung. A total of 98 usable responses were received, representing a usable response rate of over 52%. Using factor analysis and regression analysis, the result indicate that managers who use risk analysis more extensively tend to be those who work in organization that are characterized by greater risk taking, supportive information systems, long term incentive schemes and high managerial learning. No significant relationship between perceived environmental uncertainties and risk analysis in capital budgeting were found. Overall, the result indicate that to capture the benefits of risk analysis, the use of risk analysis techniques should match the setting and strategies of organization. For example, establishing a motivational reward structure and developing a supportive information systems, seem to be more important than fine-tuning the organization's basic structure and environmental uncertainty.

Despite the increasingly sophisticated management systems in China, food safety issues continue to be a persistent problem. This paper examines the underlying issues behind food safety regulation in China, focusing on the recent surge in incidents. Against the backdrop of a risk society, food safety issues have become a hot topic in Chinese society today. Our research on it should not only be limited to interpreting it as a shallow phenomenon of unscrupulous businessmen profiting at the expense of conscience, nor should it be simply attributed to the negative effects of modern food chemical technology development. Instead, we should start from the perspective of the theory of risk society to gain a more thorough understanding and comprehensive reflection. The backdrop of a risk society in transition, China's food safety problem has become increasingly severe. To better withstand risks and move towards a safer society, it is essential to fully recognize the importance of food safety and establish a scientific and reasonable system of risk governance through improving legal mechanisms, risk communication and interest mechanisms.

Millions of people have no access to healthy and safe food due to food insecurity that may occur at household, regional or national levels. National policies, insufficient agricultural development and low levels of education may lead to food insecurity. Furthermore, food quality and food safety is a major benchmark of economic development. Food borne risks to human health can arise from biological, chemical or physical hazards. Risk analysis is a key discipline for reducing food borne diseases and food insecurity, and for strengthening food safety systems. Food safety risk analysis is used for assessing and managing risks associated with food hazards. The risk analysis process contains three elements: risk assessment, risk management and risk communication. This paper focuses on risk communication and summarizes the results and findings of the case study for official food safety communicators. The preliminary descriptive study intends to present the reaction of Hungarian consumers to a crisis that affected a wide range of society. In 2007, the guar gum scandal caused panic among consumers when dioxin-contaminated guar gum entered the food chain. This food contamination scare followed previous occasions such as production of intoxicated paprika powder, re-labelling of overdue meat packages and the Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) crisis in Hungary. To analyze risk perception and consumer behavior, a primary research was conducted with a sample size of 1,577.

In 1992 all operators on the Norwegian continental shelf were ordered by the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD) to document all non-conformances to the regulations for their platforms, evaluate the safety impact of the non-conformances and commit to corrective actions. None of Phillips Petroleum Company Norway's (PPCoN) 26 platforms of varying ages were designed to the 1992 NPD Regulations and the cost of simply correcting all the non-conformances was deemed prohibitive. PPCoN used an innovative approach to comply with the order at an acceptable cost while significantly reducing offshore risk levels. The methodology used combines the merits of qualitative and quantitative risk analysis to identify significant risk contributors and associated nonconformances. Risk analysis results were then used with safety acceptance criteria and cost-benefit analysis to identify risk reducing measures for implementation. In many cases it was found that regulatory non-conformances were not the major risk contributors and it was seen that the risk analysis approach including cost benefit analysis resulted in a focus on true risk contributors that facilitated significant safety improvement in a cost effective manner. Introduction Phillips Petroleum Company Norway (PPCoN) is the operator of 26 offshore installations in Norwegian sector of the North Sea. The Greater Ekofisk Area platforms have been designed, built and installed over a 15 year period (1973-1990) under a changing regulatory environment. In addition, major and minor upgrade and modification work has been conducted up through the years, often requiring adherence to the most recent regulatory requirements. In effect, different technical systems on the same platform often conform to different regulatory requirements. In view of the complex regulatory considerations resulting from the application of different versions of the regulations, the NPD order represented a significant challenge to PPCoN. After discussions PPCoN agreed with the NPD, that the basis for the review should be the 1992 regulations. As a consequence the term "non-conformance", as used in this paper, is not intended to represent a legal interpretation of the term as regulations in general are not considered retro-active. It was soon concluded that the alternative of simply correcting all the non-conformances were prohibitive. The cost would be extremely high and from a cost-benefit perspective such a solution would not be justifiable. Based on a wish to focus on the real risk contributors, a project process evolved that utilized a risk analysis approach as the framework in complying with the order. This paper describes how PPCoN complied with the NPD order by developing and employing an innovative risk analysis methodology. Initially, a summary of the Norwegian regulatory regime is provided including its considerations around the use of risk analysis. The steps in the project process are then described briefly to provide a basis for an overall understanding of the project. A specific focus has been given to the use of cost-benefit analysis within the project and this is described and discussed in detail in a separate chapter. The detailed activities and results for one platform are then provided in a case study to illustrate the application of the project process. Prior to the conclusions, some important experiences from the project execution have been included together with some perspectives on the future with respect to the application of risk analysis and cost-benefit analysis. Risk Analysis within the Norwegian Regulatory Regime The NPD has been delegated authority to supervise petroleum activity on the Norwegian Continental Shelf. As a consequence, the NPD has implemented regulations and guidelines regarding requirements for all systems on offshore installations. P. 557

Food risk analysis remains a major cornerstone that provides a framework for the risk-based food safety system. This paper aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of the food safety system, and the foundational role and opportunities of the risk analysis concept in the East Africa Community (EAC). The study was done through the explorative review of the literature as the best approach to getting broad information on the concept of risk analysis in global food safety and its impact on food safety systems. Through analysis of the relevant literature and previous studies related to global food safety and food safety systems, the approach helped to draw on challenges and opportunities and to reformulate the potential key role of the risk analysis concept in the EAC food safety system. Challenges were identified through the evaluation of the effectiveness of the EAC food safety system with reference to the US- effective food safety model. The role and opportunities of the risk analysis in the EAC food safety system were evaluated against identified challenges, and its implementation feasibility and assets in the EAC food safety system. As results, the EAC food safety system showed many gaps and challenges, and was ineffective. While the risk analysis concept was found a key factor in attributes of the effective food safety system, it could help the EAC food safety system to become effective, and to respond to the current and future food safety needs of both the African continent and the Globe. With many opportunities and potentials in EAC, the risk analysis concept can be integrated into the EAC food safety system. Therefore, a useful and strategic approach as a model of the integration of the risk analysis concept was designed for EAC. It is the establishment of an EAC- Regional Centre of Expertise in Food Risk Analysis (EAC-CREFRA). In addition, the EAC food safety system needs to anchor One Health and multi-factorial food safety management approaches to food safety.

Food Safety is at the center of One Health. Many, if not most, of all important zoonoses relate in some way to animals in the food production chain. Therefore, the food becomes an important vehicle for many, but not all, of these zoonotic pathogens. One of the major issues in food safety over the latest decennia has been the lack of cross-sectoral collaboration across the food production chain. Major food safety events have been significantly affected by the lack of collaboration between the animal health, the food control, and the human health sector. Examples range from BSE and E. coli outbreaks over dioxin crises to intentional melamine contamination. One Health formulates clearly both the need for and the benefit of cross-sectoral collaboration. In this chapter, we will focus on the human health risk related to zoonotic microorganisms present both in food animals and food from these animals, and typically transmitted to humans through food. We focus on these issues because they are very important in relation to the human disease burden, but also because this is the area where some experience of cross-sectoral collaboration already exist. Food related zoonoses can be separated in three major classes: parasites, bacteria, and viruses. While parasites often relate to very specific animal hosts and contribute significantly to the human disease burden, virus have often been related to major, well-published global outbreaks, e.g. SARS and avian- and swine-influenza. The bacterial zoonoses on the other hand often result in sporadic, but very wide-spread disease cases, resulting in a major disease burden in all countries, e.g. Salmonella and Campylobacter. Next to these traditional zoonotic problems, the use of antimicrobials in (food) animals has also caused the emergence of antimicrobial resistant (AMR) zoonotic bacteria. It is important to realize the difference in the nature of disease epidemiology, as well as, in society’s reaction to these diseases in different socio-economic settings. Some diseases have global epidemic—or pandemic—potential, resulting in dramatic action from international organizations and national agricultural—and health authorities in most countries, for instance as was the case with avian influenza. Other diseases relate to the industrialized food production chain and have been—in some settings—dealt with efficiently through farm-to-fork preventive action in the animal sector, e.g. Salmonella. Finally, an important group of zoonotic diseases are ‘neglected diseases’ in poor settings, while they have been basically eradicated in affluent economies through vaccination and culling policies in the animal sector, e.g. Brucella.

The Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD) has since the mid-seventies put increasing emphasis on the use of risk analysis techniques in the industry as one of the tools for enhancing safety in exploration and production activities offshore Norway. This approach now forms a cornerstone for updated offshore safety Regulations. In this paper, background internal control obligations of operators are reviewed along with safety supervisory activities of the NPD. The concepts of safety objectives and acceptance criteria as applied to offshore activities are presented. The subsequent use of risk analysis as a tool to highlight areas requiring further attention is discussed. Finally, the "performance-based" nature of the new detailed regulations in defining safety upgrade actions is also reviewed. Background Petroleum activities on the Norwegian Continental Shelf have now lasted for more than 25 years. The first exploration drilling started in 1966 and the first oilfield was discovered in 1969. The NPD was established in 1973 and located in Stavanger on the west coast of Norway. The NPD is the governmental body issuing regulations and taking care of the daily regulative and supervisory functions aimed at petroleum activities as far as management of petroleum resources, safety and working environment are concerned. This comprises safety for personnel, external environment and economy, as well as working environment in the broadest sense. The NPD had already requested in the late seventies that operating companies apply risk analysis techniques to new platform projects. P. 119^

Food security and safety issues have been central to Extension programming since its inception, but emerging concerns over the issues of food waste and system inefficiency have brought new challenges to the forefront. Social change ideas related to reducing food waste include use of secondary quality produce, date label elimination, repurposing of food scraps, and donation and gleaning of food. Implementation of these ideas often intersects with issues of food safety. Therefore, it is incumbent on Extension professionals nationwide to consider how best to use content and expertise to address modern food security, food waste, and food safety challenges.

The Nairobi pork food system is a growing livestock sub-sector which serves as a source of food and livelihood to its inhabitants. The study aimed to map Nairobi's pork value chains, assess their governance, operational challenges and their impacts on food safety risks and management practices. Qualitative data were collected in seven focus group discussions and 10 key informants' interviews on animal movements and product flows, stakeholders' interactions, perceptions on system governance and challenges, and on their potential impact on food safety management. Quantitative data were obtained to show the importance of flows, business operations and market share. Thematic analysis was conducted to identify themes that provide understanding on the governance, challenges and food safety practices in each profile. The predominant chains identified were [1] The “large integrated company” profile which accounted for 83.6% of pork marketed through abattoirs, and was based on a well-structured supply system, with owned farms (representing 50% of their supply), contract farms and semi-contract farms and [2] Local independent abattoirs, accounting for 16.4%, are privately owned small-scale production, supplied mainly (70%) by small farmers from the immediate neighboring areas. The main challenges associated with governance themes included; (i) Inadequate/lack of enforcement of existing regulation (ii) Negative effect of devolution system of governance (iii) Pig traders' dominance (iii) Lack of association at all system nodes, and (iv) Male dominance across the pig system. The main challenges reported included; (i) Lack of capital to upscale (ii) Poor infrastructure (iii) Pig shortage (iv) Excessive regulation (v) Lack of training (vi) Diseases (v) Lack of knowledge (vi) Unfair competition. Food safety themes were associated with (i) Inadequate slaughter facilities forcing traders/farmers to undertake home slaughter (ii) Lack of knowledge on disease management (iii) Lack of training on hygienic practices in the slaughterhouse and (iv) Lack/insufficient capital to purchase equipment's to ensure proper hygiene e.g., boilers. The study provides insights into the structure of the pork system supplying Nairobi, the governance issues important to the stakeholders, challenges and food safety issues. The framework obtained can be used by policy makers and researchers to investigate and develop pork industry and for food safety and disease control programmes.

The use of risk analysis for design improvement

This study reviews the relationship between sociodemographic variables and food safety, and assesses how sociodemographic variables relate to three different food hazards in the food chain—pesticides, Salmonella, and fat. Our results revealed that women and blacks were more likely to have high levels of concern about food safety than were men and whites. Also, the level of concern increased with age. A respondent's percived vulnerability to that risk may explain differences across risks.

The issue of food fraud, safety and contaminants remains a topic of public concern, as it has been aligned to potential food scarcity. However, nanotechnology presents a promising opportunity for improving various industries, including food, agriculture, and health. This article aims to examine the potential of nanotechnology in enhancing food safety in Ghana, and its efficacy in addressing prevalent food safety challenges. Nano‐based approaches, such as nano‐packaging, nano‐sensing, nano‐additives, and other nano‐techniques, are discussed as effective methods for addressing major and emerging food safety issues in Ghana, such as food contaminants, antimicrobial resistance, food fraud and adulteration, and poor sanitary conditions. Additionally, the ethical and safety implications of these nano‐based approaches and particles are also deliberated.