Vehicle Controllability and Human Response Characteristics

<div class="htmlview paragraph">In undertaking any experimental work the first step is to plan carefully each successive step. Literature bearing on the subject should be examined to learn what work others have done on the problem and avoid needless duplication of effort. If the testing of only a simple accessory is involved, the results the device is intended to accomplish should be studied and an effort made to discover the designer's reason for believing that it will accomplish them. All conditions under which such a device must operate should be listed and the information needed from which to draw conclusions as to whether the device will meet them successfully should be determined. Before starting the actual work of testing, it is good policy to plan the necessary charts for presentation of the report.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This preliminary work means that the investigator will start well prepared but not with his mind made up as to what the results will be. It is necessary to be very careful in all experimental or research work; otherwise preconceived ideas are likely to result in finding what one wants to find rather than the exact truth. Prejudice is not the result of careful thinking and planning but of lack of such forethought. If a problem involves the investigation of a device on an engine, as for example a manifold, it is well to remember that there are other functioning parts and to be on guard against the temptation to attribute a sudden falling off of engine-power to the manifold when it may, in fact, be due to improper functioning of one of the other parts. New problems are more than likely to arise within, the major one as the work progresses and must be solved before the original program can be continued. Each sub-problem should also be planned carefully.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Methods to be followed in making an investigation are elucidated by examples of a study of adapting an existing carbureter to an existing engine and of a study of charge distribution by a manifold to the cylinders of a four-cylinder engine. It is necessary to do this with the use of numerical quantities taken from actual test results, but in the case of the carbureter tests the figures have no actual relation to one another and are not to be taken as representing achievements, as many were taken from experimental engines and other equipment. Before the effect of a given carbureter on the power and fuel economy of an engine can be studied, it is first necessary to learn what the engine is capable of doing when it is not influenced by the characteristics of the carbureter. After charts have been prepared from the ascertained data, the commercial-carbureter tests can be started. Each step for carrying these out is explained. All results are plotted in various ways for comparison and study.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">A method that is thought to be easiest and surest for studying charge distribution is by measurement of the maximum explosion-pressures in the several cylinders of a multiple-cylinder engine. The equipment used and the method of doing this are described and the results given. Curves produced from the study indicate that power loss due to poor distribution is incurred by reason of (<i>a</i>) too lean or too rich a mixture and (<i>b</i>) improper spark-advance.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">In planning the layout and equipment of a laboratory, a good way to begin is to make a study of the work that probably will have to be done in it and to realize that undoubtedly some problems will have to be undertaken that are not included in the survey, for which reason all equipment should be so designed that changes can be made easily, quickly and cheaply. Known essentials are that</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"> <ol class="list nostyle"> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(1)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Equipment must be bolted to the floor</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(2)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Water must be drained away</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(3)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Sufficient working space must be available</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(4)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The entire space must be well lighted</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(5)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The room should have a high ceiling</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(6)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Good crane-transportation should be provided</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(7)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Provision must be made for conducting away exhaust-gas</div> </li> </ol> </div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">A model laboratory that answers all of these requirements is illustrated and described in considerable detail.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Virtual simulation is a fundamental tool for the development of new vehicles, both for individual components and for complete subsystems and full vehicles. Many software tools exist in the automotive sector to assess full-vehicle behavior and performance, including multibody software and algorithms based on 14 (or more) degrees-of-freedom vehicle dynamics models. In order to reproduce the testing maneuvers and typical vehicle mission, a key part of such simulation tools is the virtual driver algorithm. It is essential to implement a control logic that reproduces the handling response of the driver, so that the closed-loop maneuvers can be evaluated. However, the response of typical virtual drivers is not always similar to the human driving characteristics. Virtual driver algorithms can perform very fast, precise, and smooth steering and pedal actions, while humans display a more variable, delayed and often not optimal actions.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The aim of this article is to describe the concept and implementation of a novel human-like path planning model. The algorithm is developed in MATLAB environment, creating a function that obtains a human-like path and vision logic by setting some key-parameters. They are: Distance Factor, Widening Factor, Cutting Factor, Inner Smoothing Factor and Outer Smoothing Factor.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The parameters - essential to alter the shape of the trajectory described in a track - have their values attributed by fitting experimental data gathered during test sessions in a driving simulator. The vehicle model used to implement the path planning system is based on the VI-Grade CarRealTime environment, in co-simulation with MATLAB/Simulink, and the results indicate that the novel algorithm has a closer correlation with the DiL tests than the original virtual driver. The stronger correlation is confirmed also in the comparison between different human drivers, showing that the proposed strategy is robust to driving styles.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Among the potential applications of this new “human-like virtual driver” approach is the ability to better predict human driver response during tuning and optimization of vehicles and control systems, apart from a further understanding of human driving behavior useful for tasks like ADAS and autonomous driving.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Controlled Auto-Ignition (CAI) combustion, also known as HCCI or PCCI, has recently emerged as a viable alternative combustion process to the conventional spark ignition (SI) or compression ignition (CI) process for internal combustion (IC) engines, owing to its potential for high efficiency and extremely low emissions. One of the most effective and practical means of achieving CAI combustion in an engine is to retain or recycle the burnt gases. In order to understand better the effects of recycled burnt gases on CAI combustion, detailed analytical and experimental studies have been carried out. The analytical studies were performed using an engine simulation model with detailed chemical kinetics.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The five effects of the recycled burned gases studied include:</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"> <ol class="list nostyle"> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">(1.)</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Charge heating effect: higher intake charge temperature due to hot burned gases;</div></li> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">(2.)</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Dilution effect: the reduction of oxygen due to the presence of the burned gases;</div></li> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">(3.)</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Heat capacity effect: due to higher specific heat capacity of burned gases;</div></li> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">(4.)</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Chemical effect: chemical reactions involving CO<sub>2</sub> and H<sub>2</sub>O in the burned gases</div></li> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">(5.)</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Stratification effect: recycled burned gases are stratified from the fuel/air mixture.</div></li> </ol> </div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">And the main conclusions are:</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"> <ol class="list nostyle"> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">(1.)</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">The charge heating effect is mainly responsible for the advanced AI timing due to hot burned gases. It increases the heat release rate and shortens the combustion duration.</div></li> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">(2.)</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">The dilution effect does not affect AI timing, but it extends combustion duration. Its slows down the heat release rate only when large amount of burned gases is present.</div></li> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">(3.)</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">The heat capacity effect is mainly responsible for the reduction in the heat release rate, and it has a similar effect to extend the combustion duration as the dilution effect.</div></li> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">(4.)</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">The chemical effect does not affect AI timing and heat release rate. It reduces the combustion duration slightly at high concentrations of burned gases.</div></li> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">(5.)</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">The stratified burned gases facilitate the CAI combustion due to the presence of higher temperature region at the boundary between of the hot burned gases and combustible charge.</div></li> </ol> </div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">In an automotive suspension, the shock absorber plays a significant role to enable the vehicle performances, especially in ride, handling and Noise-Vibration-Harshness (NVH). Understanding its physical characteristics is of great importance, as it has a main influence on the overall vehicle performance.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Within this research project simulation models for different passive monotube shock absorber systems have been created in a 1-D system simulation software. The simulation models are designed and parameterized physically.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">To validate the simulation models measurements on different hydropulse-shaker with specially designed control signals to investigate the response during high frequency excitation, have been done. A detailed discussion of the several models and results of a simulation to measurement comparison is given. After detailed investigation the shock absorber simulation models are now adaptable to the multi body simulation.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">As a result nearly equal experimental and simulated response of the different shocks was found. Some deviations are remaining during high frequency (>30Hz) operation of the damper. Dominant parameters to influence the damper response have been found. A sensitivity analysis shows the influences of these parameters. An analytical model to approach the shim stack stiffness was designed. For a validation detailed Finite-Element-Method (FEM) models of the shim stack have been developed and compared with load cases up to 100 bar hydraulic pressure. Additionally an FEM-model of the shock absorber and detailed modal analysis have been made to calculate and validate the natural frequencies of the shock. Limitations of this current study are the investigated monotube shock absorber systems, not including and including stroke-dependent-damping.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The presented novelty is the method of the configuration of the shock absorber simulation models only with geometric data. The shim stack models to calculate its stiffness instead of fatigue calculation are new as well. The new configuration approach increases the possibility to design automotive shock absorbers in advance of having a prototype. With the multi-body simulations of the chassis forecasts of the cars behaviour are possible at earlier stages during the development cycle. As OEM it is possible to simulate the behavior of the shock absorber in detailed car models.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Studies of driving cycles for buses have been published in a number of papers, e.g., the Central Business District (CBD) and New York Bus (NY Bus) driving cycles. Such studies, however, cannot represent the actual driving environment of Seoul because of differences in road conditions and the volume of traffic. Thus, this study presents the development of a driving cycle for the city bus system of Seoul, the capital city of Korea.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">A representative route is selected by means of a statistical analysis of the city bus routes in Seoul. Experiments are performed to measure velocity, road grade, engine speed, load conditions, gear-shift patterns, and vehicle acceleration in actual Seoul traffic. A simulation model is developed to evaluate a driving cycle on the basis of the measured data obtained. The coupling effect between velocity and acceleration is analyzed, as well as the coupling effect between road grade and vehicle acceleration. A driving cycle is then proposed based upon an analysis of parameters drawn from the experimental data.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The cycle is evaluated by means of simulation and a test that employs a chassis dynamometer. The evaluation is performed in relation to fuel economy, drivability, and engine operating conditions in both the proposed driving cycle and actual driving conditions. After several rounds of reconstruction, a city bus driving cycle for Seoul has finally been proposed. The final driving cycle consists of a velocity profile, road grade factors, and a timed approach to gear shift timing.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This final product is called the Seoul City Bus Driving Cycle (SCBDC). The running time of the cycle is 1,320 s with 344 s of idle time. The average velocity is 29.2 km/h, with a maximum of 67.0 km/h over a total distance of 7.86 km. The fuel economy in the SCBDC is 2.36 km/I, as opposed to 2.32 km/I for actual Seoul traffic. There were few differences in terms of velocity distribution, acceleration, road grade, and engine operating conditions between the SCBDC and actual Seoul traffic.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">High pressure EGR provides NO<sub>x</sub> emission reduction even at low exhaust temperatures. To maintain a safe EGR system operation over a required lifetime, the EGR cooler fouling must not exceed an allowable level, even if the engine is operated under worst-case conditions.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">A reliable fouling simulation model represents a valuable tool in the engine development process, which validates operating and calibration strategies regarding fouling tendency, helping to avoid fouling issues in a late development phase close to series production.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Long-chained hydrocarbons in the exhaust gas essentially impact the fouling layer formation. Therefore, a simulation model requires reliable input data especially regarding mass flow of long-chained hydrocarbons transported into the cooler.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">There is a huge number of different hydrocarbon species in the exhaust gas, but their individual concentration typically is very low, close to the detection limit of standard in-situ measurement equipment like GC-MS.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Therefore, a new measurement and analysis approach has been developed, where the exhaust gas is guided to a metal foam collector, in which HC`s are deposited. The probe is then analyzed in a suited thermogravimetrical system (TGA) in nitrogen atmosphere, temperature range 25°C to 650°C. Analyzing the TGA curve, HC concentration data for 6 different boiling temperature ranges are obtained, provided to an adapted 1-d fouling simulation model.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Using these data along with further input parameters like cooler geometry, gas temperature, pressure, flow, particle size distribution and coolant temperature, the simulation model has proven as a suitable tool to predict the fouling and identify engine settings for fouling reduction.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Straight intersecting path or “side” collisions account for 12% of all motor vehicle crashes and 24% of fatalities. While previous research has examined driver responses to hazards striking from the right (near side), no research has quantified driver responses to hazards striking from the left (far side) of an intersection. The purpose of this study was to measure driver response time (DRT) and response choice for two versions of this scenario. In one condition, the hazard vehicle was initially stopped at the intersection before accelerating into the path of the participant driver. In the other condition, the hazard vehicle approached and entered the intersection while moving at a constant speed of 50 km/h.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Testing was conducted using an Oktal full car driving simulator. 107 licenced drivers (N<sub>Female</sub> = 57, N<sub>Male</sub> = 50) completed a short familiarization drive followed by the experimental drive in which they encountered both the initially stopped and moving conditions of the straight path hazard, in a counterbalanced order. DRT was defined as the time between when the hazard vehicle crossed a trigger located two meters from the curb until the driver reacted either by touching the brake pedal or swerving.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The average DRT was 0.08 seconds in the initially moving hazard condition and 2.39 seconds in the stopped condition. In the moving condition, many participants were able to anticipate the hazard before it crossed the defined starting location. To account for the more obvious hazard precursor in the moving condition, a geographic location further from the intersection is proposed as the starting location for measuring DRT in gradually developing hazard scenarios. There was also a significant difference in DRT (F (2) = 5.55, p = 0.005) based on the avoidance action taken. Drivers who braked and steered had the longest response times and they were also more likely to get into a collision.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">The increase of the electrical power required by current vehicles suggests the need to evaluate its impact on fuel consumption, emissions and performances.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Moreover, due to the growing amount of cars equipped with Air Conditioning System, a deep knowledge on how these additional loads influence vehicle performances is required.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Often, the mechanical power requested by electrical and AC systems is comparable to the mechanical power necessary to move the vehicle (or sometimes even higher) and this happens mainly during urban driving cycles.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"><i>Drivetrain 3.0</i> is an integrated simulation model for vehicle energetic evaluation and management; fuel consumption and performances on a generic speed vs time driving cycle are dynamically evaluated as a function of electrical power loads and their possible management strategies.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Other additional mechanical loads (i.e. climate compressor) and the related transmission efficiency could also be taken into account.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Furthermore, <i>Drivetrain 3.0</i> can calculate the fuel consumption as a function of the state of charge (SOC) of the battery and the engine idle rpm boost (depending on the energy management strategies), in order to guarantee the electrical balance.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The simulation model enables the evaluation of the effects of Start&Stop strategy on fuel consumption, taking into account the electrical power consumption when the engine is switched off.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Tread belt separation and detachment is a common failure mode of radial tires. The accident reconstructionist is frequently asked to evaluate the effect of tread belt separation and detachment relative to the occurrence of an accident. Publications have previously been directed toward defining the effects of rapid tire deflation on vehicle drag and handling. However, little has been written about the singular effect of the loss of the tire tread belt relative to vehicle handling. The loss of a tread belt from a tire may be followed by rapid deflation. The combined separation and detachment event may have similar effects on vehicle handling as a rapid deflation event.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">To evaluate the effect of the loss of a tread belt without tire deflation, the authors tested tires prepared so that the tread belts could be intentionally separated while driving at speeds between 50 and 75 miles per hour. The initial phase of the test was conducted at the Transportation Research Center (TRC) in East Liberty, Ohio on the Vehicle Dynamics Area track. The track contains a <span class="xref">figure 8</span> with banked turns. The long straightaway in the center traverses a rectangular, level skid pad. The test vehicle was a 1993 Ford Taurus four door sedan. The tires were size P205/65R15. Twelve tires were tested on the TRC track. Three were tested at each wheel position. Nine tread belt detachments were produced on a straightaway. Three detachments were in curves or during a driver induced steering maneuver. The tread detachments occurred at speeds between 50 and 75 miles per hour. All tread belts separated in one continuous piece, with two or three small fragments in some cases.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">All of the authors were involved as test drivers and passengers to introduce a range of driver skills and responses. The vehicle speed, forward and lateral acceleration rates, and the driver induced steering torque was measured and recorded. The tests were all videotaped with an in-vehicle camera. All but one of the tests was videotaped from a chase vehicle. The tests that occurred on the straightaway were also videotaped from a stationary camera.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Separate tests were conducted to obtain comparative drag and lateral steering effects for intact and inflated tires, and for deflated tires with the tread belt in place. The sequence was repeated for tires with the tread belt detached. These tests were conducted in accordance with the test protocol defined in SAE970954 “Drag and Steering Effects of Under Inflated and Deflated Tires”[<span class="xref">1</span>].</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">The Side View Assist is the World’s first rider assistance system for two-wheelers. This is a Blind Spot Warning system, which uses four ultrasonic sensors to monitor the surrounding of the rider. Whenever there is a vehicle (i.e. a car, truck, or another motorbike) in the rider’s blind spot, the technology warns the rider with an optical signal close to the mirror. This will allow the rider to avoid a collision when changing lanes.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">In the current vehicle application, Side View Assist is active at speeds ranging from 25 to 80 kilometers per hour and supports riders whenever the difference in relative speed to other road users is small. The system helps to improve safety especially in cities, where heavy traffic makes it necessary to change lanes more often.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Originally such systems have been developed for cars and different system solutions for cars have been in serial production for several years. The challenge was to adapt these systems so they would work for two-wheelers as well.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Using the system components of car solutions is highly beneficial, because the hardware as well as the corresponding software already exists. However, adapting car components to motorcycles generated new problems for the developer: <ul class="list disc"><li class="list-item"><div class="htmlview paragraph">lean angle;</div></li><li class="list-item"><div class="htmlview paragraph">ultrasonic noise generated by the motorcycle itself;</div></li><li class="list-item"><div class="htmlview paragraph">installation of the ultrasonic sensors; and</div></li><li class="list-item"><div class="htmlview paragraph">high vibration at the fixation of the ECU (Electronic Control Unit) compared to cars.</div></li></ul></div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">During 1998, the US Federal authority introduced a requirement for vehicles powered by heavy duty diesel engines that NOx emissions shall be less than 4 g/bhp.h. This represents a 20% reduction over current levels and has prompted significant further hardware changes. As a result of these increasingly tighter NOx emission constraints, soot loading of diesel engine lubricants - due to retarded fuel injection, is becoming an ever more significant issue in crankcase lubricant formulation.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">For this reason, increased understanding is required of the mechanism of soot particle aggregation and resultant aggregate morphology - together with the likely consequences for the performance of soot-laden lubricants, for viscosity increase, filter blocking, sludging and (directly or indirectly) - soot-induced wear.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">We describe here a combined experimental and simulation approach to screening formulated lubricants and characterising soot aggregate structures. By using transmission electron microscopy combined with image analysis we can characterise the aggregate structures from soot-laden engine oils (e.g. Mack T-8 and Cummins M-11 tests) in a two dimensional imaging approach. Utilising carbon black-loaded fresh oils, we have extended this to a screening technique.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">To provide further understanding, we have developed a convenient two dimensional simulation model which uses the essentials of the diffusion limited cluster aggregation (DLCA) approach. This has been modified to allow for variable levels of colloidal stability in the primary soot particles. The simulation model is lattice-based, so computationally efficient and can allow for particle or cluster aggregation under a variety of particle loading regimes and in conjunction with variable levels of particle colloid stability.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">With the simulation model and experimental data, we can begin to understand such factors as dispersant architecture variables and soot loading rate influences on aggregate morphology and their effects on dispersion viscosity development in the lubricant.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">The increasing demand for environmentally friendly and fuel-efficient transportation and power generation requires further optimization and minimization of friction power losses. With up to 50% of the overall friction, the piston cylinder unit (PCU) shows most potential within the internal combustion engine (ICE) to increase mechanical efficiency. Calculating friction of internal combustion engines, especially the friction contribution from piston rings and skirt, requires detailed knowledge of the dynamics and lubrication regime of the components being in contact. Part I of this research presents a successful match of simulated and measured piston inter-ring pressures at numerous operation points [<span class="xref">1</span>] and constitutes the starting point for the comparison of simulated and measured piston group friction forces as presented in this research.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The authors utilized a single-cylinder floating-liner engine (FLE), based on a heavy-duty diesel truck engine, to determine crank angle resolved friction of the piston cylinder unit. The temperatures of the PCU were measured, and surface temperature distribution and thermal deformation were calculated to ensure realistic oil viscosity and piston and liner deformation under operating condition within the friction simulation.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Friction measurements were conducted under motored and fired engine condition. To derive the friction contribution of each ring and the piston skirt separately, motored strip-down tests were conducted as well. Piston ring friction was simulated with a validated ring dynamic simulation tool in combination with flow simulations of the surfaces using a deterministic correlation approach. To consider friction properly within the simulation, high-quality surface representation is needed. Precise optical three-dimensional measurements of the cylinder liner surface and the artificially surface generation for accurate numerical surface representation without measurement errors, revealed to be key. With the simulation model the friction contribution of each ring was compared separately with the strip-down measurement. Moreover, the piston secondary motion and the friction behavior of the piston skirt was calculated and compared to the measurements as well. As a result, the overall friction of the PCU was compared for motored and fired condition. The friction mean effective pressure (FMEP) as well as the crank-angle resolved friction forces from measurement and simulation were analyzed in detail. The comparison between simulation and FLE measurement was done for engine speeds from 10 to 1500 rpm, at oil temperatures from 40° to 100° C and engine loads up to 15.5 bar IMEP (indicated mean effective pressure).</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The friction contribution (FMEP) of the simulation and measurement matches very well. The detailed examination of the crank angle resolved friction forces shows very good correlation for the hydrodynamic, and boundary lubrication regions.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This research successfully proves the ability to predict the friction forces and power losses of the different components of the PCU in combination with honed cylinder liners. It also reveals the importance of the quality of the input parameters such as surface topographies, surface temperatures respectively thermal deformations, oil parameters and contact geometries. Reliable input in combination with experimental data for the validation of the simulation models, enables the utilization of the simulation tools for reliable predictive design approaches.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">The present paper focuses on a system and an appropriate controller concept for an advanced air management system of a turbocharged passenger car diesel engine. The proposed air management system consists of a VTG turbocharger, two separate EGR loops, a non-cooled high-pressure EGR and a cooled low-pressure EGR loop. In the low pressure EGR loop, the exhaust gas leaving the particulate filter is mixed with fresh air just in front of the compressor inlet.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The first step consisted of developing a sensor and actuator concept. Prior to conducting engine tests on this system, GT power simulations were performed. Additionally, a MATLAB/Simulink model was created to design a model-based predictive controller. This model is mainly founded on physical equations, allowing for easy adaptation to various systems.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">At the beginning of the engine test stage, stationary measurements were conducted to examine the influence of variations of the EGR rate, boost pressure, fresh air mass, etc. These tests were carried out in an open loop without an integrated controller for the air management system. The results were used to optimize the Simulink simulation model.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">As to the controller concept, a model-based predictive approach is presented which uses a simplified simulation model of the complete air path for the prediction.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Furthermore, the system design on the dynamometer and the interaction of the individual steps are described. Simulation results of the new controller type and first results of the controller on the dynamometer are presented, as well.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Due to modifications of the state-of-the-art high-pressure system arising from the integration of a low-pressure EGR line, additional measures need to be taken to protect the components in the inlet air path from harmful impact resulting from corrosion and particulates.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper deals with the current status and the future prospects in automotive electronics in Japan.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Electronics systems have been individually developed for the engine, transmission, brakes, suspension, instrument panel and other areas. The next challenge will be to link these standalone systems together with interactive control blocks: for example, powertrain, vehicle control and body control.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">These blocks, in turn, will be coupled together by data communications links, and they will be linked through communications to data sources existing outside the automobile.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Control technology will change from PID control to modern control theory and this will impact on microprocessor architecture.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">These control systems will increase the controllability, reliability and serviceability of the automobile as a whole.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper compares the results from three human factors studies conducted in a motion-based simulator in 2008, 2014 and 2023, to highlight the trends in driver's response to Forward Collision Warning (FCW). The studies were motivated by the goal to develop an effective HMI (Human-Machine Interface) strategy that enables the required driver's response to FCW while minimizing the level of annoyance of the feature. All three studies evaluated driver response to a baseline-FCW and no-FCW conditions. Additionally, the 2023 study included two modified FCW chime variants: a softer FCW chime and a fading FCW chime. Sixteen (16) participants, balanced for gender and age, were tested for each group in all iterations of the studies. The participants drove in a high-fidelity simulator with a visual distraction task (number reading). After driving 15 minutes in a nighttime rural highway environment, a surprise forward collision threat arose during the distraction task. The response times from the FCW event were recorded and analyzed. The results indicated no statistically significant difference in driver response times between the baseline-FCW condition and the two new variants of the 2023 study. However, a trend of longer driver response times was seen when comparing the results from 2023 study to previous studies. First, the median response times for the baseline-FCW group increased from 2008 to 2023 by about 0.25s. Furthermore, in the 2008 study, a few cautious drivers in the control group had reacted even before the distraction task had finished. However, in the 2023 study, all participants only reacted after the distraction task had finished. Finally, there was a statistically significant difference between the 2023 fading-FCW chime variant and the 2008 baseline-FCW. All of this indicates that drivers are likely becoming more complacent to warnings and are less situationally aware due to distraction from non-driving activities.</div></div>