Virtual Reality Training for Public Speaking—A QUEST-VR Framework Validation

Public speaking can be a fear-inducing and anxiety-provoking experience for individuals, potentially resulting in poor performance and missed educational, social, and professional opportunities. In order to provide applied practitioners with effective methodologies for the reduction of public speaking anxiety (PSA), this paper aims to systematically review and meta-analyse theoretically driven interventions that successfully reduce PSA or maintain/increased public speaking performance. Following the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, a systematic review and meta-analysis examined articles from 1 January 2000 to 1 June 2023. Of the 1293 articles identified, 26 studies with 2253 participants met the inclusion criteria. Research was of a moderate to high methodological standard, with interventions varying in type, duration, and focus (e.g., symptom vs. source). Intervention types included exposure, cognitive modification, combined, and other strategies. Although, the overall effect of psychological interventions for PSA across 42 interventions was g = 1.17 (95% CI = 0.88–1.45), with high heterogeneity, individual effect sizes varied greatly. While this review provides support for the efficacy of psychological interventions in reducing anxiety related to public speaking, rigorous research is warranted to examine long-term efficacy, real-world implications, self-efficacy development, and individual differences in treatment assignment. Finally, this review provides practitioners with a quick and easy guide to implementing successful interventions that reduce PSA or maintain/increase performance.

It is well documented that teachers experience a plethora of emotions in their work including anxiety. While most research has focused on anxiety in regard to curricular areas, teachers may also experience public speaking anxiety. Unlike curricular anxiety, public speaking anxiety permeates all aspects of a teacher’s work, thereby potentially exerting negative consequences for their own well-being and their students’ learning. This multi-method pre-post single-group pilot study aimed to explore sources of pre-service teachers’ public speaking anxiety and to test the utility of a virtual reality (VR) intervention to reduce public speaking and social appearance anxiety. Participants (n = 7) described three sources of public speaking anxiety: communication difficulties, expectations of others, and judgment of others. Participants delivered three lessons over a period of about 5 weeks to a VR classroom simulated by the Virtual Orator © program. There were 22 student avatars representing various genders and ethnicities. Avatars were programmed to be informal in their actions and generally friendly, but they could not interact with the participant. The results of paired-samples t-tests showed that public speaking and social appearance anxiety were significantly reduced following the VR intervention. Participants described the VR as realistic and useful for real life. We discuss the results from the perspective of the control-value theory of emotions with implications for teacher education programs.

This study investigates the efficacy and engagement of virtual reality (VR) as a tool for public speaking training. The primary objective is to qualitatively analyze the literature to understand how VR technology can enhance public speaking skills and increase user engagement compared to traditional training methods. The research employs a qualitative literature review methodology, synthesizing findings from academic articles, industry reports, case studies, and empirical studies to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge in this field. The literature review methodology involves systematically collecting and analyzing scholarly sources that explore various aspects of VR in public speaking training. The study categorizes the literature into key themes, such as the effectiveness of VR in simulating real-life speaking scenarios, the psychological benefits of using VR for reducing anxiety, and the levels of user engagement and motivation in VR-based training programs. Thematic analysis is used to identify patterns and trends in how VR influences public speaking proficiency and participant engagement. The findings indicate that VR offers a highly immersive and interactive environment that can closely mimic real-life public speaking situations, providing users with valuable practice opportunities. Studies show that VR can significantly reduce public speaking anxiety by allowing users to repeatedly practice in a controlled, virtual setting. Additionally, VR-based training programs are found to be more engaging and motivating for users, leading to higher levels of participation and improved learning outcomes.

As engineering leadership has evolved, the need for more effective communicators and public speaking skills for technical leaders has become more critical. For employees that are often hired for their technical expertise, it is the non-technical expertise, such as effective communication with peers, subordinates and upper management, that is critical as they move up in leadership roles within the organization. Public speaking plays a significant role throughout an individual’s career from start to finish. As an early professional, the ability to communicate ideas and objectives clearly to others plays a vital role in how you are perceived by your peers and those in leadership positions. As a result, individuals with exceptional public speaking skills are better suited to continue their career progression.Though an important skill, engineers tend to rank poorly in their communication skills. An investigation led by a professional engineering association assessed the state of engineering education and determined recommendations to improve current curriculums and improve new graduate performance. Industry supervisors were surveyed to identify potential weaknesses of recent graduates entering the workforce. Almost half indicated that recent graduates were "weak" in oral communication skills. These findings help show that public speaking abilities are essential in engineers' early career development. The aim of this research study is to explore the utility of virtual reality (VR) and soft skill development through emotional intelligence (EQ) and mindfulness instruction in the context of developing effective engineering leaders within higher education for more effective communicators within the engineering field.For VR to be effective in public speaking training it should elicit similar responses as a live presentation. Various research studies have sought to determine whether or not the stressors experienced during VR sessions were indicative of similar stress responses an individual would experience in real-world scenarios. These studies found that the stress stimuli produced in a VR environment were like those in a real-life environment indicating the utility of VR experience to improve real-life performance.EQ can be described as an intersection of interrelated emotional and social competencies, skills that influence the ability to express emotions, connect with others, and the ability to cope with stress. EQ has shown that higher performers in the workplace tend to have significantly higher EQ scores. Better EQ skills allows for individuals to better cope with stress and connect with others. It is hypothesized that improving EQ will improve the physiological response and the perception of public speaking experiences.This study utilizes an exploratory action research approach. Subjects in this study completed EQ and DISC assessments, mindfulness instruction, and participated in two VR and one live public speaking presentation. Subjects wore a Fitbit Luxe device to collect physiological data during the VR simulated and live presentations. The VR software collected data such as speech analysis and head and eye movement.The purpose of this presentation is to present the results of a pilot study that investigated the extent VR and EQ can be considered tools to improve public speaking skills and experiences for individuals in the engineering field and b) students’ perceptions about the use of VR as a method for leadership development.

Individuals with public speaking phobia experience fear and avoidance that can cause extreme distress, impaired speaking performance, and associated problems in psychosocial functioning. Most extant interventions for public speaking phobia focus on the reduction of anxiety and avoidance, but neglect performance. Additionally, very little is known about the relationship between verbal working memory and social performance under conditions of high anxiety. The current study compared the efficacy of two cognitive behavioral treatments, traditional Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (tCBT) and acceptance-based behavior therapy (ABBT), in enhancing public speaking performance via coping with anxiety. Verbal working memory performance, as measured by the backwards digit span (BDS), was measured to explore the relationships between treatment type, anxiety, performance, and verbal working memory. We randomized 30 individuals with high public speaking anxiety to a 90-minute ABBT or tCBT intervention. As this pilot study was underpowered, results are examined in terms of effect sizes as well as statistical significance. Assessments took place at pre and post-intervention and included self-rated and objective anxiety measurements, a behavioral assessment, ABBT and tCBT process measures, and backwards digit span verbal working memory tests. In order to examine verbal working memory during different levels of anxiety and performance pressure, we gave each participant a backwards digit span task three times during each assessment: once under calm conditions, then again while experiencing anticipatory anxiety, and finally under conditions of acute social performance anxiety in front of an audience. Participants were asked to give a video-recorded speech in front of the audience at pre- and post-intervention to examine speech performance. Results indicated that all participants experienced a very large and statistically significant decrease in anxiety (both during the speech and BDS), as well as an improvement in speech performance vii regardless of intervention received. While not statistically significant, participants who received an acceptance-based intervention exhibited larger improvements in observer-rated speech performance at post-treatment in comparison to tCBT (F (1,21) = 1.91, p =.18, [eta][p]2 = .08) such that individuals in the ABBT condition exhibited a considerably greater improvement in observer-rated speech performance than those in the tCBT condition. There was no differential impact of treatment condition on subjective speech anxiety or working memory task performance. Potential mediators and moderators of treatment were also examined. Results provide support for a brief 90-minute intervention for public speaking anxiety, but more research is needed in a study with a larger sample to fully understand the relationship between ABBT strategies and improvements in behavioral performance.

Public speaking anxiety (PSA) is a common issue among the youth due to a lack of confidence, fear of strict evaluation, and concerns about self-image. This can cause negative effects, such as shyness, reduced social skills, and limited career goals. Past researchers asserted that virtual reality (VR) simulation with a virtual public speaking environment for practicing increases confidence. Moreover, other researchers applied artificial intelligence (AI) to enhance communication and foster student learning. To our understanding, there are currently few studies on integrating large language models (LLMs) in VR within the public speaking realm. In addition, analysis of behavioral intention to use the simulation is also essential before widely applying new technologies in educational environments. Therefore, we conducted a study based on the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) approach, using an LLM-integrated VR simulation system. In this study, we recruited 30 students from two public speaking sections and asked them to experience and rate the system. Results revealed that effort expectancy, facilitating conditions, and hedonic motivation are significant predictors of behavioral intention. Gender and prior VR experience were not moderating factors for connections between UTAUT constructs and behavioral intention. In addition, our results also highlighted the critical role of two antecedent variables: academic major and GPA levels, which had a significant effect on performance expectancy, effort expectancy, and hedonic motivation. Our research findings offer beneficial theoretical and practical implications for applying novel technologies to students.

This study presents the results of two studies using a virtual reality (VR) public-speaking training simulation as an instructional aid in a basic communication course. Results from the first study suggest that VR practice was associated with higher subsequent speech delivery grades in the course compared to no practice. However, VR practice did not reduce public speaking anxiety (PSA). In a follow-up study, VR practice was compared with other forms of lab-based practice including in front of a mirror and a recorded video session. All forms of lab practice (VR, mirror, or video) were associated with higher speech grades than no practice, but there were no differences between lab-practice conditions in terms of outcomes. Results are discussed in terms of adopting and using virtual public-speaking simulations in large undergraduate public-speaking courses.

Individuals with public speaking anxiety (PSA) experience fear and avoidance that can cause extreme distress, impaired speaking performance, and associated problems in psychosocial functioning. Most extant interventions for PSA emphasize anxiety reduction rather than enhancing behavioral performance. We compared the efficacy of two brief cognitive-behavioral interventions, a traditional cognitive-behavior treatment (tCBT) and an acceptance-based behavior treatment (ABBT), on public speaking performance and anxiety in a clinical sample of persons with PSA. The effects of treatment on prefrontal brain activation were also examined. Participants (n = 21) were randomized to 90 min of an ABBT or a tCBT intervention. Assessments took place at pre- and post-treatment and included self-rated anxiety and observer-rated performance measures, a behavioral assessment, and prefrontal cortical activity measurements using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Exploratory results indicated that participants in the ABBT condition experienced greater improvements in observer-rated performance relative to those in the tCBT condition, while those in the tCBT condition experienced greater reductions in subjective anxiety levels. Individuals in the ABBT condition also exhibited a trend toward greater treatment-related reductions in blood volume in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex relative to those who received tCBT. Overall, these findings preliminarily suggest that acceptance-based treatments may free more cognitive resources in comparison with tCBT, possibly resulting in greater improvements in objectively rated behavioral performances for ABBT interventions.

As in many other countries, universities in Indonesia have been closed since March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown, and lecturers have been forced to adapt to online learning. Students in this online course admitted to feeling anxious when studying public speaking. This descriptive quantitative study aims to analyze the potential factors (English oral proficiency, personality, lecturer's scoring criteria, classmates' responses, pronunciation, audience familiarity, unfamiliar speech topic, preparedness, English grammar, vocabulary) affecting the students' public speaking anxiety at four different stages. The respondents of this study were 60 undergraduate students. A questionnaire adapted from McCroskey (1970) was used, and data were analyzed using descriptive statistics of IBM SPSS statistics 26 software. The findings of this study revealed that the factors affecting the students' public speaking anxiety through online learning varied by stages. Through online learning, English oral proficiency and topic familiarity could be the most influential factors on students' public speaking anxiety. The findings of this study are useful for educators in helping EFL students overcome their public speaking anxiety and enabling them to perform better in public speaking.

Public speaking is a communication ability that is expressed in social contexts. Public speaking anxiety consists of the fear of giving a speech or a presentation and the perception of being badly judged by others. Such feelings can impair the performance and physiological activation of the presenter. In this study, eighty participants, most naive in Virtual Reality experience, underwent one of four virtual reality public speaking scenarios. Four different conditions were tested in a between-group design, where the audience could express positive or negative non-verbal behavior (in terms of body gesture and facial expression), together with positive or adverse questions raised during a question-and-answer session (Q&A). The primary outcomes concerned the virtual audience behavior’s effect on perceived anxiety and physiological arousal. In general, perceived anxiety seemed to be unaffected neither by the verbal nor non-verbal behavior of the audience. Nevertheless, experimental manipulation showed a higher susceptibility to public speaking anxiety in those participants who scored higher on the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS) than those with lower Social Interaction Anxiety Scale scores. Specifically, in the case where the verbal attitude was negative, high SIAS trait participants reported a higher level of anxiety. Participants’ physiological arousal was also affected by the proposed scenarios. Participants dealing with an approving audience and encouraging Q&A reported increased skin conductance response. The lack of correlation between reported anxiety and skin conductance response might suggest a physiological engagement in an interactive exchange with the virtual audience rather than a form of discomfort during the task.

Fostering elementary school children's public speaking skills: A randomized controlled trial

Public Speaking Anxiety (PSA) is a common and impairing psychological condition, causing significant distress and interference in multiple domains of functioning. Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) has demonstrated efficacy treating several psychological disorders, and preliminary evidence supports its efficacy for PSA. However, there is no prior research examining the neurological changes associated with ACT for individuals with PSA. Electroencephalogram (EEG) is a useful technique for examining baseline resting state patterns of brain electrical activity in addition to changes that may occur following a course of treatment. In addition, frontal alpha asymmetry has been shown to be related to approach/avoidance behaviors that may be indicative of changes in PSA symptomatology. Analogue interventions can serve as "mini" doses of treatment, potentially allowing researchers to quickly determine the efficacy of a treatment for an individual prior to embarking on a lengthy course of therapy. The present study is the first to examine the role of frontal brain asymmetry among individuals with PSA receiving a brief, acceptance-based analogue intervention. Specifically, we sought to determine whether greater left frontal hemispheric activity at baseline predicted response to an ACT analogue treatment. We enrolled 33 participants with public speaking anxiety, collecting clinician-rated and self-rated baseline assessments of symptomatology. Baseline resting state frontal alpha asymmetry was recorded using EEG, followed by a second EEG recording in which participants were asked to anticipate giving a brief public speech immediately afterward. Following an initial public speaking task, participants were shown a 30minute, video-recorded, acceptance-based intervention introducing concepts derived from ACT. Following the intervention, a third EEG recording was made, in which participants were asked to anticipate giving a second public speech, utilizing the skills they learned during the intervention. Immediately following this recording period, participants delivered a second public speech to a small audience. Response to treatment was quantified using participants' self-reported ratings of anxiety and "openness to anxiety" recorded during the pre- and post-treatment public speaking tasks. Results indicate that individuals with greater baseline anxiety symptomatology demonstrated greater increases in relative right hemispheric activity in anticipation of the pre-treatment public speaking task. Overall, the sample demonstrated a trend toward greater relative left frontal hemispheric activity across the three EEG time points, although this change did not reach statistical significance. Although no measure of frontal asymmetry was able to predict response to treatment, participants reported statistically significant anxiety reduction and increases in openness to anxiety, providing support for the utility of analogue interventions. Implications of the findings are discussed, and recommendations for future research are provided.

Effective public speaking is widely recognized as an essential 21st-century skill that enables learners to communicate ideas clearly, engage audiences, and participate actively in academic and social contexts, yet limited empirical evidence explains how cognitive, instructional, and affective factors interact to influence students’ public speaking performance, particularly among junior high school learners. Anchored on Social Cognitive Theory, Scaffolding Theory, and Fear of Negative Evaluation Theory, this study examined the influence of critical audience awareness, instructional feedback quality, and speaking anxiety on the public speaking skills of Grade 10 students. Using a descriptive-correlational research design, the study involved 137 randomly selected students from a public secondary school in Cagayan de Oro City, determined through the Taro Yamane formula. Data were collected using three adapted questionnaires and a performance-based public speaking rubric, all of which underwent expert validation and pilot reliability testing. Descriptive statistics and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) were employed. Results indicate that critical audience awareness, instructional feedback quality, and speaking anxiety were all high, while public speaking skills remain generally fair across confidence, content, organization, language use, and delivery. The findings further revealed that instructional feedback quality significantly affects critical audience awareness and speaking anxiety. The study concludes that enhancing public speaking development is shaped by interacting instructional, cognitive, and affective conditions rather than by any single direct predictor. It is suggested to implement structured speaking programs that combine repeated oral performance, guide audience analysis, and immediate teacher feedback.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of public speaking training with cognitive behavioral therapy towards public speaking anxiety. Another purpose was to examine the difference of this training effectiveness towards both genders, male and female. The training method is appropriate for applying cognitive behavioral approaches because this method aims to change cognition and to train certain behaviors for an individual to the adaptive and better behavior. The purposive sampling is used in this experimental research to obtain 20 samples including 10 males and 10 females sit in the third grade of a senior high class of TrubusIman Islamic Boarding School and have public speaking anxiety in the medium and high level. The method used quantitative approach for analyzing data. It can be concluded that the training had been effectively minimizing public speaking anxiety but this research could not able show the difference of the training effectiveness among both genders.

Abstract: Glossophobia or fear of public speaking is commonly experienced by tertiary learners during classroom presentations. This study intends to examine the speech anxiety level experienced by engineering learners and the relationship between the learners’ English language proficiency and their speech anxiety. The study will also identify the causes of public speaking anxiety among these engineering learners. The samples were 65 Engineering Diploma students who responded to McCroskey’s Personal Report of Public Speaking Anxiety (PRPSA) questionnaire. The students’ English language grades at SPM level were used as the measurement of their English language proficiency. The findings showed the students’ speech anxiety is at moderate level (M= 105.9) and there was a weak negative relationship between total PRPSA scores and SPM English language grades (r = -.149, n = 65, p > 0.05). Mere thoughts of presenting a speech with undue worries of being asked questions were the causes of their speech anxiety. Therefore, it is proposed engineering learners be given ample public speaking trainings through planned programmes and engineering curriculum planners include elements of public speaking in engineering subjects. Public speaking skills will be an added value and increase engineering graduate employability in future.
 Keywords: Communication apprehension, Glossophobia, Public speaking, Speech anxiety, PRPSA