Vitruvius

Vitruvius's De architectura is only major work on architecture to survive from classical antiquity, and until eighteenth century it was text to which all other architectural treatises referred. While European classicists have focused on factual truth of text itself, English-speaking architects and architectural theorists have viewed it as a timeless source of valuable metaphors. Departing from both perspectives, Indra Kagis McEwen examines work's meaning and significance in its own time. Vitruvius dedicated De architectura to his patron Augustus Caesar, first Roman emperor, whose rise to power inspired its composition near end of first century B.C. McEwen argues that imperial project of world dominion shaped Vitruvius's purpose in writing what he calls the whole body of architecture. Specifically, Vitruvius's aim was to present his discipline as means for making emperor's body congruent with imagined body of world he would rule. Each of book's four chapters treats a different Vitruvian body. Chapter 1, The Angelic Body, deals with book as a book, in terms of contemporary events and thought, particularly Stoicism and Stoic theories of language. Chapter 2, The Herculean Body, addresses book's and its author's relation to Augustus, whose double Vitruvius means architect to be. Chapter 3, The Body Beautiful, discusses relation of proportion and geometry to architectural beauty and role of beauty in forging new world order. Finally, Chapter 4, The Body of King, explores nature and unprecedented extent of Augustan building programs. Included is an examination of famous statue of Augustus from Prima Porta, sculpted soon after appearance of De architectura.

WELL BEFORE PHOTOGRAPHY and electronic networks encircled the planet, there existed a European migratory channel within which architectural images were carried across the Alps by tourists and pilgrims.1 Moving along well-established pathways, architectural drawings, treatises, and personal recollections operated as a self-replicating network that allowed travelers, once home, to recreate the buildings they so admired abroad. The northern European reception of Andrea Palladio (1508-80), facilitated by the elegant woodcuts and explanations of his Quattro Libri dell'architettura (1570) [FOUR BOOKS ON ARCHITECTURE] and by the prominence of his buildings in cities and estates between Vicenza and Venice, demonstrates the effectiveness of this pre-modern media circuit. The efforts, first British, then German, to emulate Palladio's villas, palaces and churches constitute one of the most successful examples of pre-modern stylistic proliferation.2 Not only did Palladian architecture reproduce itself throughout Europe and North America, it integrated comfortably with other media. For many in the late eighteenth century, Palladian architecture seemed to enhance the production of literary texts, the recollection of foreign adventures and the self-understanding of the modern subject. More than just a backdrop for the idyllic production and reception of literature, Northern European Palladianism was deployed as a technology capable of assisting in the conscious reproduction of experience. Through architectural and imagistic simulation, Palladianism sought both to inspire reminiscences of earlier travels and to encourage their repetition. Stressing the importance of architectural journals, Beatriz Colomina has argued that twentieth-century architecture was constituted within its own photographic representation.3 Renaissance buildings, while moving through much slower networks, were also understood through their media representation, rather than through the existential perception of their space. For a great portion of Europe, Palladio's own buildings existed first and foremost as drawings which allowed, indeed encouraged, the construction of similar buildings far removed from the original site. Once the first Palladian imitations rose in northern Europe, they encouraged a new audience to travel back to the original model for further inspiration and emulation.This loop has run for so long that it is impossible today to understand Palladio except through Palladianism.4 Goethe's Italienische Reise was a critical component of this network, reinforcing its operation even as the text sought to escape its terms. Despite his disdain for travel literature, Goethe's memoir became the most well known German representation of Italy in general and Palladio in particular.5 His letters and memoirs, furthermore, document how the imagistic recollection of buildings moved back and forth across the Alps. His writing about Italy makes clear not only that he had read treatises about the sites he planned to visit beforehand, but also that he had grown up amidst engravings his father had brought back from his own Italian travels.6Thus, despite the literary historical rupture ascribed to Goethe's sojourn in Rome, the trip south was motivated in large part by desires generated through this already wellestablished circuit of Italian images. His travelogue makes clear that Goethe was eager to compare his memories of the pictures he knew as a boy with the actual places. In this sense Goethe can be said to have inserted the human subject into the migratory movement of classical images. German scholars in earlier generations had formulated long theories about the greater world based solely on their own readings. Kant felt empowered to present authoritive theories about global cultural geography in his popular anthropology lectures even though he had never left Konigsberg. The late eighteenth century brought with it the new northern European demand that one not judge a work of art unless one had done more than see its image, or even just look at it briefly as aristocrats on the Grand Tour might have done, instead one had to engage it with all one's being. …

Preserving the originality or maintaining the performance is not a choice in heritage conservation. Both aspects need to be completed as a whole consideration for a decision in the conservation project. Conservation practice becomes more complex and challenging, followed by the change of time and condition. This article aims to identify the challenges of heritage conservation practice based on the conservation practice of the A. A. Maramis building. This study was unique in that it linked architectural components of form-function-meaning with a conservation aspect of A. A. Maramis Building restoration. Employing a descriptive qualitative approach, this article characterizes the issues and challenges. The data were collected through a long observation from the initiation until the final stage of the conservation project. The results display some issues that can be addressed as learned from the conservation project of A. A. Maramis Building in Jakarta are related to building regulation, material, and worker skill. Building regulations related to seismic safety are prepared for new structures. Building regulation should provide tools and guidelines that could save the old historic building, prolong its life, and protect the safety of the user. A number of old materials are demanding to be replaced. The construction industry at the present time failed to support most conservation projects, notably regarding building materials such as good quality timber for beams and planks. Old skills to handle masonry construction and woodworks should be reintroduced in technical schools to support conservation projects of buildings from the colonial period.

Mold has become a major environmental concern in homes and in the workplace. Indeed, mold spores are found almost everywhere, but current legal cases and media coverage of mold problems inside buildings have projected this indoor air quality issue into the public spotlight. A member of the Fungi Kingdom, mold needs a source of food and water to survive and grow. Cellulose-rich building materials, including wood studs, drywall, ceiling panels, carpeting, wallpaper, and insulation (when wet), may serve as nutrient source to mold. Furthermore, certain mold species have been known to produce allergic reactions and illnesses in humans. This paper examines various available factors that impact mold damage in buildings, and discusses health effects on people, and describes the impact that it is having on the construction industry. It discusses building materials and practices that promote the growth of mold in buildings and outlines recommendation for testing, abatement, and remediation and the control of moisture, air, and humidity in buildings as various means of controlling the growth of mold in buildings.

The San-Ho-Tu building material is manufactured by adequately mixing a ternary mixture of sintered oyster shell ash, laterite and sand with water. It has been broadly used for construction and restoration of the ancestral temples and clan houses in China and Taiwan for hundreds of years due to its adequate engineering properties and easy availability of raw constituents. The main purpose of this study is aimed at understanding its engineering properties and proper mix proportioning. Cylindrical specimens of ϕ50 × 100 mm for nine sets of mixtures were cast, including three sets of traditional San-Ho-Tu building material (L-group), three sets of L-group mixtures with Portland cement (C-group) and three sets of single oyster ash paste an laterite paste (S-group). They were tested for compressive and tensile strengths at six ages of 7, 14, 21, 28, 56 and 90 days, respectively. Experimental results showed that at 90 days, the average compressive strengths of three specimens for S-group, L-group and M-group were 296.2, 2144.1 and 4915.4 kPa respectively. The ratios of the splitting tensile strengths to the corresponding compressive strength of San-Ho-Tu cylindrical specimens were between 16.1% and 19.9% which were higher than those of 10.0% and 14.0% for concrete cylinder made from the pure Portland cement paste.

This study aims to identify the factors influencing green building certification in Bali, Indonesia, with a focus on contextual sustainability, particularly socio-cultural aspects. The green building movement is gaining traction globally and has found its way to Indonesia, promoting sustainability in the construction sector through various certification systems such as Greenstar, BREEAM, LEED, DGNB and Greenship. However, implementation in Bali presents unique challenges and opportunities due to its rich cultural heritage and local architectural principles. The first green building certification in Bali began with a pilot project in Gianyar Regency in 2018, indicating a nascent but growing interest. Despite the growing global push for sustainable buildings, adoption in Bali has been modest, with only ten projects certified to date, mostly government buildings. This limited uptake highlights the need to understand the contextual factors influencing green building certification in Bali. The research used a mixed methods approach, integrating qualitative and quantitative analysis. Data collection included in-depth interviews and questionnaires distributed to stakeholders involved in green building projects in Bali. The findings revealed three main groups of influencing factors: Green Building Performance, Rules and Regulations, and Socio-Culture. Among these, socio-cultural aspects emerged as particularly significant, reflecting the importance of aligning green building practices with Balinese architectural traditions and local community values. This study highlights the critical role of contextual factors in green building certification in Bali. Integrating local cultural values and traditional architectural principles with green building standards can increase the acceptance and effectiveness of sustainable building practices in Bali. The findings suggest a pathway towards more sustainable development in Bali that respects and preserves its unique cultural identity while advancing environmental sustainability goals.

Over the last twenty years, the study of the women of the Greek and Roman world has experienced a boom that, if it is judged by the sheer output of relevant publications, dwarfs any other recent innovations and redirections in the field of ancient history. In view of the ongoing proliferation of studies on this topic, I can only hope that my present paper not only adds to the bulk but also a little to the stock (to heed Laurence Sterne's lament over the historian's business) in that it seeks to redress an imbalance that informs most previous research on women's life in classical antiquity. In short, the large majority of studies in this particular field concentrate on urban environments and, as a consequence, give undue prominence to a certain segment, actually a minority group in terms of quantity, of ancient society. Needless to say, however, that, given the nature of our sources, anything else than this biased focus would have been a big surprise and probably impossible to achieve. Even so, the busy study of those layers of ancient society that produced, or caught the eye of, the authors of Greek and Roman literature, inscriptions, papyri, and coinlegends, can be fully vindicated only when the more shadowy and obscure regions of ancient history are not allowed to be passed over in complete silence. The contribution of women to ancient agriculture is an issue that falls squarely within that latter, underprivileged category of subjects. In her introduction to a collection of essays on new methodological approaches to the study of women in antiquity, Marilyn Skinner pointed out that ‘Real women, like other muted groups, are not to be found so much in the explicit text of the historical record as in its gaps and silences – a circumstance that requires the application of research methods based largely upon controlled inference’

Traditional building practices, which are typically regarded as repositories of heritage and material culture, are undergoing significant transitions in northern Ghana. This transition is evident in the use of building materials other than locally accessible traditional materials. These transitions are driving creativity and innovation as households strive for continuity of tradition, while at the same time ensuring the sustainability of their buildings. This article analyses the architectural traditions and building practices in northern Ghana using the building work and commentaries of the people of Gbabshe in peri-urban Tamale as a case study. The results show that building practices are transitioning because of environmental changes, migration, wealth accumulation and access to modern building materials and technology. As the peri-urban community becomes urbanised, the people encounter “modern” building styles which are appropriated into their traditional architecture, resulting in a hybridisation of architecture. The innovative tendencies and philosophical continuities of these builders, and the desire to achieve sustainable buildings and the hybridisation of architecture, has implications for the future of earth buildings’ relevance, resilience, sustainability, and sociocultural significance in people’s everyday lives.

The literature on ancient art that appeared in the 6th century BC alongside the first art treatises, and later expanded its scope and diversity, has been almost completely lost. Only three works have been fully preserved, and even these only from the Roman period: Vitruvius’ treatise De Architectura, Pliny the Elder’s encyclopedia Naturalis Historia, which includes an excursus on ancient art in individual chapters, and Pausanias’ Description of Greece intended for Roman educated travelers. In addition to these three works, two other types of texts are classified as literary sources of art history: the essays that belong to the genre of ekphrasis (rhetorically perfected descriptions of artistic objects, real or imaginary), and the corpus of excerpts by selected authors of Antiquity that generally wrote about other themes, but in places also talked about ancient art. When Pliny the Elder composed his chapters on ancient art forms he used original works of art or Greek and Roman art history literature. When he was writing the Naturalis Historia he used information from numerous authors that he cited in the first book and also some parts of the text. The Roman encyclopedist drew his knowledge of technical aspects of art primarily from Greek treatises published between the 6th and 4th centuries BC by numerous artists; among them, the sculptor Polykleitus of Argos and the painter Pamphilus of Amphipolis are worthy of mention. Art history literature that coincides at least in part with the modern concept of art history had its beginnings in the early Hellenistic period. Pliny based his work on three authors from this period: Duris of Samos, Xenocrates of Athens, and Antigonus of Carystus. Duris of Samos (close of the 4th century BC) designed his two works – which have the generic titles On Painters and On Sculptors – as a series of biographies, in which he highlighted the apex of every artist’s life, coinciding with the creation of his most important work. In his essays, Xenocrates of Athens (second quarter of the 3rd century BC) presented the history of ancient art as a continuous evolutionary line in which great artists played the role of the first inventors. Thus art followed the development towards naturalism; that is, perfection personified, in Xenocrates’ opinion, by Lysippos among the sculptors, and Apelles among the painters. Antigonus of Carystus (last quarter of the 3rd century BC) enriched the work of his two predecessors with his own epigraphic studies. In the middle and late Hellenistic period, Xenocrates’ developmental view of the world was a generally accepted idea. Individual authors differed only by the period in which they placed the apex of development. The most influential among them, Appolodorus of Athens (2nd century BC), put the Athenian artists of the Age of Pericles to the forefront; especially Phidias. Appolodorus’ nostalgic and retrospective vision (in contrast to Xenocrates, who recognized the masters of Sicyon school, to which he also belonged, to be the pinnacle of art history development) coincided with the renewal of Attic art around 150 BC, known also as the Classicism of Athens or neoAtticism. In the late Hellenistic period, various compendiums were popular (mainly periegeses and lists of artists), among which Pasiteles’ (first half of the 1st century BC) essay entitled Mirabilia is the most interesting. Although Pliny the Elder based his history of ancient art on all the authors mentioned above, the writings of classical philologists and archeologists often imply that he might not have always used the art history literature mentioned as primary sources, but rather cited a great deal of information from the works of his predecessor, the famous Roman encyclopedist Marcus Terentius Varro (beginning of the 1st century BC).

In his Vite of 1730 Lione Pascoli reports the opinion of Bernini enthusiasts that Borromini, ‘out of an excessive desire to innovate in ornamentation, had on occasion gone beyond the rules’. Reading this today I think we wonder why they said only ‘on occasion’: how could theorists retain throughout the seventeenth century a conception of architectural rules sufficiently flexible for Borromini ever to be said to satisfy it? This article will examine a small and sometimes overlooked area of architectural decoration — door and window surrounds — and try to discover what such rules might be; firstly by examining the relation between architectural treatises and actual buildings, and then asking to what extent the middle ground between theory and practice can be filled in with a sort of ‘common law’ of architecture: a mixture of precedent, interpretation, and deduction from first principles. It will then attempt not so much to defend Borromini from the charge of going beyond this common law, rather to demonstrate that his innovation depends upon a subtle manipulation of it. In this way I hope to sketch out the dozen or so most important architectural first principles or ‘issues’ which generate virtually every Roman Baroque surround.

This paper gives an overall view of challenges concerning building enclosure performance in a potentially more severe climate, based on future climate development scenarios for different parts of Norway. Preliminary results from the Norwegian Research & Development Programme “Climate 2000 – Building constructions in a more severe climate” indicates that there is a clear need to further develop our knowledge, methods, tools and solutions in principal concerning the planning and design of buildings in harsh climates, in order to ensure a reliable building stock in the future as well. Climate change will entail new conditions for the Norwegian construction industry. The presented climate change scenarios calls for a systematically identification of areas in the Norwegian construction industry that are vulnerable to potential impacts of climate change, and the development of adaptation strategies.

Bamboo is gaining recognition as a sustainable building material thanks to its fast growth, strength, and versatility. It provides an environmentally friendly alternative to conventional materials, helping to lower environmental impact. Its inherent durability and adaptability make it ideal for diverse construction uses, enhancing both efficiency and sustainability in building practices. Exploring bamboo as a building mate-rial is critical to promoting sustainable construction. With its rapid growth, impressive strength-to-weight ratio and environmental benefits, bamboo stands out as a viable alternative to conventional materials. Ex-ploring its characteristics and applications will foster more environmentally friendly, efficient and innova-tive building practices. Alternatives taken as Bamboo A, Bamboo B, Bamboo C, Bamboo D, Bamboo E. Evaluation Parameters taken as Cost Effectiveness (Benefit), Environmental Impact (Benefit), Durability (Non-Benefit), Maintenance Requirements (Non-Benefit). The results indicate that Bamboo C achieved the highest rank, while Bamboo D achieved the lowest rank being attained. “The value of the dataset for Bamboo as Building Material, according to the MOORA Method, Bamboo C achieves the highest rank-ing.”

The main point in studying history is the material culture. It brings in itself a multyfunctionality, it is a valuable source of studying of processes of the ethnogenesys. Dwelling can considered one of the main thing ethno cultural, economical everyday development of the population; it is an element of an identity of the rural population, the ethnical primary base. It can observe as one of the main components of the ethno-cultural processes, which study not only principle of the building of dwelling, using building materials which are immanent for concrete district planning, relation with other buildings, but as a big heritage of spirituality. However for each person, house is a whole space where "life" traditions and spiritual values which are immanent for each family. 
 Reforming of rural construction in general depended from appearance and using of different building materials, skills, knowledge and practices of folk masters. There were theirs peculiarities in each regions. In construction of wells in a shape of roof and methods of its covering, in a shapes of beam brackets in design windows and doors, in artistic decoration. Poltav’s governorship featured by felled houses special quadrangular shape of the roof, by "konuks" at the ends of brackets , special shape of a door in some regions. In some regions of the Northern Poltava’s region to the rear façade of a house a long and narrow extension was building out ("prupysnutsia"): it used for placing cattle.
 For Ukrainian people hut always was not only a shelter from weather. There was creating life in it, every day existence with their happiness, sadness and worries. It is a whole direction in studying of material culture which demands detailed investigation not only for historical memory, but fora spiritual outlook of the modern population. 
 The article open an important component of material culture - a development of the national construction of dwelling, which is reflects a concrete historical development of a certain part of the population, community, large spiritual and cultural element with an essential feature of identity.

Nias Selatan is located in the west of the island of Sumatra, Indonesia, has a unique traditional house in the form of a stilt house with a sloping roof, and a wooden frame construction where all the building materials are made of biological materials, obtained from the natural surroundings. Buildings are strongly influenced by the environment and its inhabitants, which are in harmony with the principles of biological architecture. This study aims to identify the application of biological architecture in South Nias traditional houses. The research method used is qualitative content analysis, namely research methods with in-depth conceptual integration. The environment (climate, location, vegetation, land and water) and people / inhabitants (basic human needs, culture, beliefs / religions, and livelihoods) are important indicators as well as factors causing the birth of the traditional house of South Nias. These factors will be analyzed to determine the impact (architectural design, materials, construction) on the building. From the research results, it can be concluded that the traditional houses of South Nias apply biological architecture that reflects the genius locus of their ancestors.

The purpose of the Year 14 UCETF project was to design and construct a residential structure that could serve as a demonstration facility, training site, and testing and monitoring laboratory for issues related to the implementation of sustainable building practices and materials. The Model Home Project builds on the previous and existing efforts, partially funded by the UCETF, of the City of Austin Green Builder Program to incorporate sustainable building practices into mainstream building activities. The Green Builder Program uses the term {open_quotes}green{close_quotes} as a synonym for sustainability. In the research and analysis that was completed for our earlier reports in Years 12 and 13, we characterized specific elements that we associate with sustainability and, thus, green building. In general, we refer to a modified life cycle assessment to ascertain if {open_quotes}green{close_quotes} building options reflect similar positive cyclical patterns found in nature (i.e. recyclability, recycled content, renewable resources, etc.). We additionally consider economic, human health and synergistic ecological impacts associated with our building choices and characterize the best choices as {open_quotes}green.{close_quotes} Our ultimate goal is to identify and use those {open_quotes}green{close_quotes} materials and processes that provide well for us now and do not compromise similar benefits for future generations. The original partnership developed for this project shifted during the year from a project stressing advanced (many prototypical) {open_quotes}green{close_quotes} building materials and techniques in a research and demonstration context, to off-the-shelf but underutilized {open_quotes}green{close_quotes} materials in the practical social context of using {open_quotes}green{close_quotes} technologies for low income housing. That project, discussed in this report, is called the Green Habitat Learning Project.