What is Required for Advancing REDD+? (Progress to Date and Challenges Ahead)

Social scientists are increasingly interested in the processes that give shape to global policy solutions. I investigate the issues of intermediation and the role of intermediaries in climate finance. I use the case of the Green Climate Fund (GCF), a new consortium for dedicated funding set up under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to assist developing countries in responding to climate threats, to ask a fundamental question: What role do intermediaries (GCF-accredited and related entities) play in catalysing climate action through climate finance in these countries? This paper offers three propositions focused on the role of intermediaries in the GCF, and tests these using data from the GCF and the wider literature. The results show a growing dominance of international intermediaries in GCF project development and implementation, the low capacity of national intermediaries to conceive and scale projects, and the mismatch between planned and actual funding allocations. Collectively, these outcomes derail the GCF from its core objectives of promoting country ownership of projects, building capacity of local intermediaries, and equitable allocation of funding between mitigation and adaptation. I offer three learning models to help the GCF and intermediaries capitalise on the early lessons from GCF activities and to scale climate finance effectively in developing countries.

REDD+ – an incentive mechanism to reduce deforestation and associated greenhouse gas emissions in developing countries – was developed under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and subsequently included in the Paris Agreement. Its early implementation activities have highlighted the role of certain intergovernmental actors: REDD+financing initiatives, including the World Bank’s Forest Carbon Partnership Facility and Forest Investment Programme, and UN-REDD, a collaborative programme involving three agencies of the United Nations. By setting conditions for the provision of support for REDD+, these initiatives have actively and influentially engaged in REDD+rule making. This article focuses on the regulatory landscape for REDD+and examines rules developed under the UNFCCC and elaborated by the REDD+financing initiatives, using examples from the Latin American region. The analysis shows that informal lawmaking plays a more relevant role in REDD+rule making than international formal law, and has demonstrated legal and practical effects. However, informality can also tilt power relations between donor and recipient countries, which could jeopardize the legitimacy of transnational rule making.

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 inaugurated the beginning of the “environmental globalism” phase. This coincides with the extension of international cooperation to global environmental issues, governed by conventions with a universal vocation. The Rio conference represents the starting point for environmental protection standards. On this occasion, the need to protect global environmental assets such as climate and biodiversity was acknowledged, stating that their degradation and loss are a “common concern for humanity”. With the Rio conference, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which came into force on March 21, 1994, was opened for signature and, through the Conferences of the Parties (COP), States try to complete this agreement. During the COP in Cancun in 2010, the Green Climate Fund was established, this provides funding in terms of loans, grants, actions or guarantees to its Accredited Entity (AE) which are responsible for the implementation of projects. Accredited entities include private and public, non-governmental, sub-national, national, regional or international entities. Accreditation is a due diligence process that ensures that partners share the same goals as the Fund, have extensive experience, and a strong financial and managerial infrastructure. The Fund is an operational entity of the UNFCCC financial mechanism (Art. 11) and the main innovation is the Private sector facility. The study we propose aims to investigate the functioning of this mechanism and what transformative role it can play in the involvement of companies in the fight against climate change. In addition to addressing the institutional aspects, the contribution aims to investigate the merits and demerits of the Green Climate Fund with particular attention to the criticisms made by the Indigenous People Organization regarding the Country-ownership approach and the Policies mechanism. In addition, we will try to outline what role they have in the definition of due diligence mechanisms for companies.

Better information on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and mitigation potential in the agricultural sector is necessary to manage these emissions and identify responses that are consistent with the food security and economic development priorities of countries. Critical activity data (what crops or livestock are managed in what way) are poor or lacking for many agricultural systems, especially in developing countries. In addition, the currently available methods for quantifying emissions and mitigation are often too expensive or complex or not sufficiently user friendly for widespread use.The purpose of this focus issue is to capture the state of the art in quantifying greenhouse gases from agricultural systems, with the goal of better understanding our current capabilities and near-term potential for improvement, with particular attention to quantification issues relevant to smallholders in developing countries. This work is timely in light of international discussions and negotiations around how agriculture should be included in efforts to reduce and adapt to climate change impacts, and considering that significant climate financing to developing countries in post-2012 agreements may be linked to their increased ability to identify and report GHG emissions (Murphy et al 2010, CCAFS 2011, FAO 2011).

Environmental PolicyAt major international conferences such as UNFCCC, CBD, and UNCCD, the focus is on developing strategies and mechanisms to combat climate change, conserve biodiversity, and prevent land degradation.For instance, the Paris Agreement, signed in 2015 under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), outlines measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climate change.A key element of this agreement is the establishment of the Green Climate Fund (GCF), which mobilizes funding for projects in developing countries.Other initiatives, such as the International Initiative for Sustainable Development Financing, aim to develop mechanisms for financing and investment to

Response to climate change will critically depend on the cost, performance, and availability of technologies that can lower emissions, mitigate, and adapt to climate change. Technological innovation can furthermore lower the cost of achieving environmental objectives. However, and although issues of technology transfer have been central to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) since the negotiation of the convention, there is still an urgent need for effective environmental technology diffusion. Building upon lessons learned from technology transfer activities under the Clean Development Mechanism and the Global Environment Facility, the article suggests three possible solutions for enhanced environmental technology diffusion within the UNFCCC regime. First, it advocates in favor of a simplification of the transfer scheme within the convention's bodies, in order to save resources and better allocate responsibilities. Second, it makes some recommendations with respect to technology transfer through the Green Climate Fund. Third, it suggests that the creation of an environmental patents’ pool would help to ensure access to key environmental technologies. To this respect, the article concludes that in order to ensure the full participation of the private sector, right holders should be paid a fair royalty. Therefore, a model where rights would be bought out and then made available to parties through a patent pool is recommended.

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty established in 1992 under the auspices of the United Nations. It aims to promote global cooperation in combating climate change and adapting to its impacts. The UNFCCC sets out a framework for countries to work together to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that prevents dangerous human interference with the climate system. It recognizes that the climate system is a shared resource that requires international cooperation to protect. One of the key achievements of the UNFCCC was the adoption of the Paris Agreement in 2015. This historic agreement builds upon the principles of the UNFCCC and aims to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, while pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius. It also emphasizes the need for countries to enhance their adaptive capacity and support developing nations in their climate actions. The UNFCCC facilitates regular meetings called Conferences of the Parties (COP) where countries come together to discuss and negotiate climate-related issues. These COP meetings provide a platform for countries to review progress, share experiences, and strengthen international cooperation in addressing climate change. The United Nations plays a vital role in mobilizing political will, fostering international collaboration, and supports countries in their efforts to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, adapt to the impacts of climate change, and promote sustainable development. In conclusion, the UNFCCC, under the guidance of the United Nations, serves as a crucial platform for global action on climate change. It provides a framework for international cooperation, facilitates negotiations, and promotes sustainable solutions to address the urgent challenge of climate change.

In 1992, the United Nations convened the world's largest and most important climate- related conference, the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. During the event, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted. Through the UNFCCC, countries agree to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to prevent harmful interference from human activities in the climate system. The treaty now has 197 signatures. Since 1994, the United Nations has brought together almost every country in the world to attend the World Climate Summit (Conference of the Parties (COP)) which is usually held every year. This scientific article raises the commitment of the European Union (EU) in implementing COP 26 through environmental diplomacy analysis. This scientific article aims to identify and analyze the European Union's commitment to cooperation in COP 26 in dealing with all environmental problems. Scientific articles use qualitative research methods based on literature studies. The result of this scientific article is that the European Union conducts environmental diplomacy through COP 26 by carrying out the discussions in COP 26. The conclusion of this scientific article is that COP 26 has several objectives that must be carried out by the countries involved, including the EU. Pada tahun 1992, PBB menyelenggarakan konferensi terkait iklim terbesar dan terpenting di dunia ialah KTT Bumi di Rio de Janeiro, Brasil. Selama acara tersebut, Konvensi Kerangka Kerja PBB tentang Perubahan Iklim (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)) diadopsi. Melalui UNFCCC, negara-negara sepakat untuk menstabilkan konsentrasi gas rumah kaca di atmosfer untuk mencegah gangguan berbahaya dari aktivitas manusia di dalam sistem iklim. Perjanjian itu sekarang memiliki 197 tanda tangan. Sejak tahun 1994, PBB mempertemukan hampir setiap negara di dunia untuk menghadiri KTT Iklim Dunia (Conference of the Parties (COP)) yang biasa dilakukan di setiap tahunnya. Artikel ilmiah ini mengangkat komitmen Uni Eropa (UE) dalam melaksanakan COP 26 melalui analisis diplomasi lingkungan. Artikel ilmiah ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi dan menganalisis komitmen kerjasama Uni Eropa di dalam COP 26 di dalam penanganan perubahan iklim. Artikel ilmiah memakai metode penelitian kualitatif berdasarkan studi literatur. Hasil dari artikel ilmiah ini ialah Uni Eropa mengadakan diplomasi lingkungan melalui COP 26 dengan menjalankan bahasan-bahasan di dalam COP 26. Kesimpulan dari artikel ilmiah ini ialah COP 26 memiliki beberapa tujuan yang harus dilaksanakan oleh negara-negara yang terlibat, termasuk UE.

Discussion on reducing emissions from deforestation in developing countries began at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Conference of the Parties in 2005, and the agenda for “reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries (REDD+)” was introduced under the UNFCCC. The REDD+ framework was developed with the expectation that it would significantly contribute to climate change mitigation at a relatively low cost and produce benefits for both developed and developing countries. Finance is a key element of REDD+ implementation, and many financial sources, approaches, and mechanisms have supported REDD+-related activities in various developing countries. However, the comprehensive challenges and lessons learned for REDD+ finance and its governance have not been fully explored. This paper reviews the relevant literature to understand the challenges for REDD+ finance and its governance in two areas—(1) REDD+ finance aligned with the UNFCCC and (2) REDD+-related finance outside the UNFCCC—which have developed differently and have different implications. This paper first identifies the six key elements of REDD+ finance and its governance across the two fields, and then reviews the related challenges and lessons learned with respect to public and private finance. The challenges for REDD+ finance and its governance aligned with the UNFCCC include enhancing the performance of REDD+ finance using mainly public finance, such as results-based finance and the jurisdictional approach. In contrast, the challenges regarding REDD+-related finance outside the UNFCCC include enhancing the engagement of the private sector in REDD+ finance, mainly targeting the project level, and the relationship between voluntary carbon markets and other investment and finance mechanisms. This paper also identifies the common challenges across REDD+ finance and its governance in the two fields. These challenges include the need to enhance linkages between REDD+ and other objectives, such as carbon neutrality/net-zero, deforestation-free supply chains, and nature-based solutions, as well as the need to develop learning systems for REDD+ finance.

Reviewed by: The Climate Crisis: South African and global democratic eco-socialist alternatives ed. by Vishwas Satgar David Hallowes (bio) Vishwas Satgar (ed) (2018) The Climate Crisis: South African and global democratic eco-socialist alternatives. Johannesburg: Wits University Press Between 10 and 14 million years ago, the concentration of carbon dioxide CO2 stabilised at over 400 parts per million (ppm). The world was then then 3 to 6°C warmer than now and the sea level was 25 to 40 metres higher (Tripati et al 2009). In May 2013, the concentration touched 400 for the first time in about three million years. The difference now is that CO2 concentrations are still rising and at a faster pace than ever before in earth’s geological history. In April this year, it topped 411 ppm and will probably average about 409 ppm for the whole year. That compares with 280 ppm in the pre-industrial atmosphere. The earth’s temperature has meanwhile risen by about 1.3°C above the pre-industrial eighteenth century. Unless this is reversed soon, runaway climate change will follow and much of the world will become uninhabitable for humans. There is a lag between rising carbon concentrations and rising temperatures so we are now feeling the consequences of yesteryear’s emissions. And those consequences are already dire. At present, there are five categories of tropical cyclone but scientists are now debating the need for ‘category 6’ as more storms come in with wind speeds of over 320 kmh. The 2017 Atlantic hurricanes caused unprecedented damage: Harvey flooded Texas, Irma left several Caribbean islands in ruins, and Maria devastated Dominica and Puerto Rico. Late in the season, Ophelia turned north and east to go where no hurricanes have been before. Its tail lashed Ireland and Britain. [End Page 88] At the other end of the weather spectrum, heat and drought has parched the land. In 2015, California entered the fifth year of its worst drought ever. In Sao Paulo, Brazil, the taps were dry for most of the day. In southern Africa, the maize crop wilted, cattle died and food prices soared. In northern KwaZulu-Natal, the taps ran dry in several towns. Over the next three years, Cape Town became the next big city after Sao Paulo to watch the dams dry out. Whether from flood, drought or heat, whether in Los Angeles, Sao Paulo, Cape Town or rural KwaZulu-Natal, it is common cause that the poor suffer first and worst. In the mainstream telling of it, however, whether by the scientists of the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the country delegations of both ‘developed’ and ‘developing’ countries, the managers and arbiters of climate finance at the Green Climate Fund (GCF), the World Bank and other international finance institutions, poor people – even ‘poor and marginalised’ people – come without class. Rich people, in contrast, are never mentioned. Poverty is a function of the absence of development, never of class relations. The Climate Crisis is aptly named and Satgar rehearses the urgency of the situation in the opening pages. The heart of the book, however, is about reasserting the primacy of class. It’s not just about who dies first but about naming ‘the climate crisis as a systemic crisis of capitalist accumulation’ (2). Hence, the rich are central to the story. Over 500 years, Satgar argues, capitalism has been joined with imperial domination and the never-ending expansion required by the system is sustained by ecocide – ‘the destruction of conditions that sustain life such as ecosystems, the commons, as well as the destruction of actual human and non-human life forms’ – and is now bringing about the sixth great extinction of species in geological time along with climate change (55). This is an edited volume with 15 chapters from a diversity of contributors. It is part of the Democratic Marxism series and the sub-title, South African and global democratic eco-socialist alternatives, indicates its distance from ‘the failures of twentieth century socialism’ and the despotic ‘productivism’ of socialist states that were as much tied to economic – and ecocidal – growth as their...

This book explores the role of feminist activists in The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and highlights the progress they have made in mainstreaming gender as a key issue in global climate governance. It is now commonplace for gender to be framed as a political issue in global climate politics within academic scholarship, but there is typically a lack of robust empirical analysis of existing advocacy approaches. Filling this lacuna, Joanna Flavell interrogates the political strategies of the Women and Gender Constituency (WGC) in the UNFCCC (The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change). Through a conceptual framework that integrates climate change with intersectional critical inquiry and political practice, Flavell analyses hundreds of historical documents, coupled with interviews and observations from two UNFCCC conferences. This research uncovers a so-far untold story about the history of the UNFCCC that foregrounds gender and feminist advocacy, highlighting the importance of the WGC in shaping dominant narratives of global climate governance through a series of rhetorical and procedural strategies. Overall, the book draws important conclusions around power in global climate governance and opens up new avenues for advancing a feminist green politics. This volume will be of great interest to students and scholars of environmental justice, climate politics and governance, environmental activism, and gender studies more broadly.


 
 
 The decade starting from 2010-2020 was recorded the warmest decade in the history. The new principles such as Climate litigation, climate justice, climate legislation have been catapulted to the forefront of the environmental litigation and environmental laws. As per the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) the human activities is the substantial cause for increasing of Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere which would results in additional warming of the earth‘s surface and the atmosphere and also may adversely affect the natural eco system and human kind. Article 2 of the UNFCCC defines climate change as, a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods. Changes in the physical environment or biota resulting from climate change which have significant deleterious effects on the composition, resilience or productivity of natural and managed ecosystems or on the operation of socio-economic systems or on human health and welfare are the effects of climate change. As a matter of fact climate change is the direct result of global warming and the emission of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere has escalated the earth‘s temperature level. The Resolution adopted by the General Assembly which includes 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development urges States to take urgent action to combat climate. UNFCC, Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement constitute the international legal regime that deals with climate change. These were the results of entering into international consensus in the aim of reducing the greenhouse emission and thereby to effectively handle the climate change impacts. The objective of the paper is centered on the appraisal of the international and national legal framework that have been enacted to curb the climate change. To this end the research paper employs a qualitative methodology. Conventions, Resolutions adopted by the United Nations, legislations such as National Environment Act, Fauna and Flora Act, Coastal Conservation Act etc , policies and regulations, case laws from foreign jurisdiction are utilized as primary sources and the scholarly articles, journals, peer reviewed articles are utilized as secondary sources. The findings of the paper emphasizes that the synergy between the international and national legislations should be strengthen if the legislature is to find prolific solutions to this complex issue. Finally the paper concludes that it must be taken into consideration that if all States are to combat this unprecedented crisis, no instrument can be ignored.
 Keywords: Climate change, Climate litigation, Environment, Global warming, Sustainable development
 
 

In his perspective “A global strategy for protecting vulnerable coastal populations” (12 September, p. [1250][1]), E. B. Barbier proposes the establishment of a global emergency task force, combined with international financial support to reduce vulnerability in the long-run, as a means to protect coastal populations from the threats posed by climate change. A disaster task force would be a valuable addition to existing international approaches to climate change adaptation; in fact, the proposed financing of a long-term strategy is already underway. Barbier lists three objectives for a long-term coastal adaptation strategy: managing risks of costal storms, investing in coastal ecosystems and key infrastructure, and enhancing institutional and community response capacities. These activities conform with the strategic objectives of the Global Environment Facility's (GEF) Adaptation Program ([ 1 ][2]), which serves as a financial mechanism to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The estimated need of $575 million to support coastal adaptation in the developing world overlooks existing bilateral financing. It also fails to take into account multilateral assistance that already amounts to $247 million: The GEF's Adaptation Program has allocated $139 million for climate-resilient coastal zone management; the World Bank's Pilot Program for Climate Resilience has approved $73 million; and the Adaptation Fund under the Kyoto Protocol, $35 million. Barbier notes that developing economies would benefit from assistance for institutional capacity-building. There already have been substantial efforts in that direction. Fifty least-developed countries have already completed their National Adaptation Programs of Action ([ 2 ][3]), a list of national priority adaptation needs, as a result of the UNFCCC process and financed by the GEF's Adaptation Program. Country parties to the UNFCCC further agreed that, as a next step, so-called National Adaptation Plans will be developed that will mainstream climate change adaptation into broader development frameworks in developing countries ([ 3 ][4]). 1. [↵][5]Global Environment Facility, GEF Programming Strategy on Adaptation to Climate Change for the Least-Developed Countries Fund and the Special Climate Change Fund (Global Environment Facility, Washington, DC, 2014). 2. [↵][6]Global Environment Facility, Progress Report of the Least-Developed Countries Fund and the Special Climate Change Fund (Global Environment Facility, Washington, DC, 2014). 3. [↵][7]United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, The Cancun Agreements: Outcome of the Work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention (Decision 1/CP.16, 2010). [1]: /lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1254629 [2]: #ref-1 [3]: #ref-2 [4]: #ref-3 [5]: #xref-ref-1-1 View reference 1 in text [6]: #xref-ref-2-1 View reference 2 in text [7]: #xref-ref-3-1 View reference 3 in text

The role of the chief scientist (CS), a key administrative position in various Israeli ministries, is to fund policy‐oriented research and support evidence‐based decision‐making. Has the CS's role promoted or constrained incorporation of scientific advice regarding climate change adaptation into governmental policy? Have administrative traditions affected the adaptation planning process in Israel? Analysis of documents and 26 in‐depth interviews with key stakeholders sheds light on the ongoing climate change adaptation policy formulation process. Our study reveals that the CS of the Ministry of Environmental Protection functions as a bridge at different interfaces and can be characterized as a boundary worker between institutions. The inherent independence of this position facilitates the CS's ability to initiate, foster, and prioritize complex issues such as adaptation. Our findings further suggest that the perception that Israel has already adapted, or will easily adapt, has negatively affected the adaptation process. 科学建议和行政传统：首席科学家在气候变化适应工作中的作用 首席科学家是以色列各部门的一个关键行政职务, 其具体作用是为政策性研究提供资金, 并支持循证决策。对于有关气候变化适应的科学建议, 首席科学家的作用是促进还是限制了其被纳入到政府政策中？行政传统是否影响了以色列的气候适应规划进程？通过文件分析及与关键利益相关者的26次深入访谈, 笔者揭示了正在进行的适应气候变化政策的制定过程。研究表明, 环保部门的首席科学家在不同的层面上起着桥梁作用, 在不同机构的分界线上工作以彼此连接。该职位的内在独立性能促进首席科学家在发起问题、培养和优先考虑包括适应气候等复杂问题的能力。研究进一步表明, 以色列已经适应了或即将轻易适应某些观点, 而这已经对气候适应过程产生了负面影响。 Asesoria cientifica y tradiciones administrativas: el papel que juegan los cientificos principales en la adaptacion al cambio climatico El papel que juegan los cientificos principales, un puesto administrativo clave en varios ministerios israelies, esta especificamente designado para el financiamiento de investigacion orientada hacia la politica y el apoyo a decisiones basadas en evidencia. ?El papel que juegan los cientificos principales ha promovido o limitado la incorporacion de asesoria cientifica en lo que concierne a la adaptacion al cambio climatico dentro de las politicas del gobierno? ?Las tradiciones administrativas han afectado el proceso de planeacion para la adaptacion en Israel? El analisis de los documentos en 26 entrevistas exhaustivas con partes afectadas clave ilustra el proceso de formulacion de las politicas de adaptacion al cambio climatico actual. Nuestro estudio revela que el Cientifico Principal del Ministerio de Proteccion Ambiental funciona como un puente para diferentes interfaces y puede ser caracterizado como un trabajador limitrofe entre las instituciones. La independencia inherente de esta posicion facilita la habilidad del cientifico principal para iniciar, fomentar y darle prioridad a complejos problemas como la adaptacion. Nuestros hallazgos sugieren que la percepcion de Israel ya se ha adaptado, o se adaptara facilmente, y ha afectado negativamente el proceso de adaptacion.

International law development theories fail to determine the legal nature and effect of decisions made by treaty bodies. An example that demonstrates this is the ongoing evolution of a mechanism to reduce emissions from deforestation and degradation (REDD+) under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). REDD+ was incorporated into the UNFCCC negotiating agenda on further implementation by the Bali Action Plan in 2007. Although using classical interpretation of the making of international law there is no REDD+ legal agreement, REDD+ has permeated many areas of law in a number of ways, from the international to the local level. This article examines the cumulative effect that REDD+ is having on related forest law and policy making, as well as indigenous peoples and human rights. It concludes with consideration of the potential linking role that REDD+ safeguards could have, and the problems with this approach.