What Risk Should the Public Accept From LNG Facilities?

The « GIFT » concept concerns the development of an offshore floating LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) storage terminal moored to the seabed by means of a turret mooring system that allows the terminal to weather-vane freely in accordance with the prevailing weather conditions, thus minimizing the loads acting on the terminal and its mooring system in extremely bad weather conditions (typically hurricane in Gulf of Mexico). When the significant wave height is higher than 1.25m (operating limit of the tugs) and lower than 2.5m (unloading operation limit of GIFT), stern transverse thrusters rotate the hull oblique to the direction of the prevailing seas, so that the hull acts like a breakwater and creates a calmer area in its lee side for the tugs, in which they can maneuver the LNG carriers for berthing and mooring. During an LNG carrier unloading and when an LNG carrier is not alongside, the terminal weather-vanes freely again. The terminal will receive LNG from conventional LNG carriers that berth alongside the terminal. The LNG will be regasified onboard the terminal and exported to shore, as gas, via two 16" flexible risers and a subsea pipeline. The objective is to prove feasibility and to increase knowledge of this specific innovative design of floating LNG terminal. The following marine aspects are addressed:Behavior of the terminal alone in survival seas (including mooring and sloshing analyses)LNG carrier approach and berthing including fender DesignBehavior of LNG carrier during unloading at terminal (mooring analysis) A further objective is to investigate the effectiveness, in open water, of equipping the hull with horizontal skirts, to further dampen the terminal motions and the seas in the lee of the terminal. Introduction The concept 'GIFT' is presently developed on the following characteristics:Dimensions : 410 m length × 55m beam × 43m depthReceiving LNG carriers with 75,000m3 to 250,000m3 storage capacitiesTerminal storage capacity of 350,000m3 (6 tanks of 60,000m3 with membrane type containment)Unloading LNG Carrier up to 18,000m3/hour (2 × 5 rigid 16" loading arms)Gas send out capacity of 8 billions cu.m per year (regasification of 45,000m3 of LNG per day)Water depth: 75m in Gulf of Mexico Therefore, the challenge and the technological objectives are to design a terminal, which:Can berth LNG carriers side-by-side in an extended range of weather conditions up to 2.5m significant wave height.Reduce relative movements of the terminal and the LNGcarrier so that the unloading operations are close to those traditionally used in sheltered coastal (inshore) terminals, using existing designs of cryogenic loading arms.Is located at some distance off the coast in order to achieve safe, environmentally friendly, fast and efficient unloading operations, and to avoid traffic congestion and effectively to respond to safety concerns presently raised by onshore regasification plants and approach of LNGcarriers.Is cost effective, constructed and delivered in shorter time than onshore terminals and offshore LNG-GBS's (Gravity Base Structures).

With the booming natural gas trade, liquefied natural gas (LNG) carriers—the primary transportation method for intercontinental trade on natural gas—have been experiencing enormous growth. This study offers a novel analysis that connects 2011's in-use LNG fleet characteristics, global satellite data on ship movement, and literature on LNG trade to assess the long-term prospects for increasing the energy efficiency of LNG carriers. This analysis also investigates how efficiency characteristics (such as age, size, technology, and operational practices) influence the efficiency of the LNG fleet and develops a ship stock model to independently track technical and operational efficiency practices in LNG carriers. The findings indicate that industry-leading LNG carriers are about 40% more efficient than industry laggards. This analysis indicates that by fully embracing the available technical and in-use practices of the low-carbon industry leaders of today, the fleet could reduce CO2 emissions by 30 million metric tons by 2040—about 8 million metric tons of natural gas, equivalent to $4 billion savings in the LNG supply chain. This study has important implications for the shipping industry and policy makers. The industry has to address split incentives to take advantage of energy-saving opportunities. Regulations that set targets for the energy efficiency of the in-use fleet may ultimately help the industry harvest the efficiency gains while mitigating climate impact from the industry.

Recent research in the liquefied natural gas (LNG) industry has concentrated on reducing specific power consumption (SPC) during production, which helps to lower operating costs and decrease the carbon footprint. Although reducing the SPC offers benefits, it can complicate the system and increase investment costs. This review investigates the thermodynamic parameters of various natural gas (NG) liquefaction technologies. It examines the cryogenic NG processes, including integrating NG liquid recovery plants, nitrogen rejection cycles, helium recovery units, and LNG facilities. It explores various approaches to improve hybrid NG liquefaction performance, including the application of optimization algorithms, mixed refrigerant units, absorption refrigeration cycles, diffusion–absorption refrigeration systems, auto-cascade absorption refrigeration processes, thermoelectric generator plants, liquid air cold recovery units, ejector refrigeration cycles, and the integration of renewable energy sources and waste heat. The review evaluates the economic aspects of hybrid LNG systems, focusing on specific capital costs, LNG pricing, and capacity. LNG capital cost estimates from academic sources (173.2–1184 USD/TPA) are lower than those in technical reports (486.7–3839 USD/TPA). LNG prices in research studies (0.2–0.45 USD/kg, 2024) are lower than in technical reports (0.3–0.7 USD/kg), based on 2024 data. Also, this review investigates LNG accidents in detail and provides valuable insights into safety protocols, risk management strategies, and the overall resilience of LNG operations in the face of potential hazards. A detailed evaluation of LNG plants built in recent years is provided, focusing on technological advancements, operational efficiency, and safety measures. Moreover, this study investigates LNG ports in the United States, examining their infrastructures, regulatory compliance, and strategic role in the global LNG supply chain. In addition, it outlines LNG’s current status and future outlook, focusing on key industry trends. Finally, it presents a market share analysis that examines LNG distribution by export, import, re-loading, and receiving markets.

_ Liquefied natural gas (LNG) has been in global energy supply discussions for decades. Geopolitical tensions, however, recently elevated it from a bullet point to the entire conversation. Rarely does a day pass without mention of signed long-term LNG purchase agreements or LNG terminal construction projects advancing, one day making it possible to transport the curiously cold molecules across oceans to eventually power industries or heat homes. So strong are the fundamentals of the LNG industry, for example, that they were cited as a primary driver in the conversion of one of the largest pure-play US-listed shipping companies—Capital Product Partners led by Greek shipowner Evangelos Marinakis—to a pure-play LNG shipping company. In addition to changing its name to Capital New Energy Carriers, the partnership is selling off its modern fleet of 15 Neo-Panamax and Panamax container vessels. It will spend $3.13 billion to purchase 11 newbuild LNG carriers (LNGC). According to an announcement on 13 November, the first of the new vessels arrived in October 2023. The company already had seven LNG carriers in its fleet, with the remaining 10 newbuild vessels scheduled for delivery through March 2027. Jerry Kalogiratos, chief executive of Capital Product Partners, said the acquisition was transformative, noting that the partnership “expects our contracted revenues to increase by 87% percent to $3.1 billion, our revenue weighted charter duration to 7.2 years as of the closing date, and the average age of our LNG fleet to decrease to 3.2 years by the time all LNGCs have been delivered in 2027.” LNG Market Overview Events like the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 and the sudden loss of Russian pipeline gas supplies upended global energy markets. European buyers turned to LNG imports to meet demand. According to Wood Mackenzie, the current conflict in Israel/Gaza, possible pipeline sabotage in the Baltics, and the threat of fresh strike action at Australian LNG facilities all pushed spot prices up 35% through October. In a November blog post, Wood Mackenzie noted that a record 200 mtpa of new supply is under construction as “players bet big on Asia’s push to reduce its dependence on coal and Europe’s need to replace Russian gas.” While the proliferation of LNG projects is prompting concerns that there may be too much LNG on the market once these projects are completed, this is not the case, according to Wood Mackenzie. “Increased supply availability will bring prices down and boost demand growth,” said Gavin Thompson, vice chair of Europe, Middle East, and Africa, and Massimo Di Odoardo, vice president, gas and LNG research for Wood Mackenzie, noting that the market will need another 60 mtpa of new LNG by 2033. “Much will hinge on sustained economic growth, driving increased demand across emerging markets in Asia. China’s LNG demand will increase by 12% in 2023, and with 50 mtpa of LNG contracted over the past 2 years, imports will double by 2030. LNG demand in South and Southeast Asia will also grow twofold by this time,” they said.

Prelude Floating Liquefied Natural Gas (FLNG) facility reached a significant milestone in June 2018 when gas was introduced onboard for the first time as part of the facility startup process, loaded from an LNG carrier moored in side-by-side (SBS) configuration. This first offshore LNG SBS operation allowed Prelude’s utilities to switch from running on diesel to running on gas. SBS mooring is the base case configuration for of floading both LNG and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) into product carriers using Marine Loading Arms (MLA) once the Prelude FLNG facility is fully operational. These complex and weather sensitive operations are expected to take place on a weekly basis. This means critical decisions about weather-window and timing should be supported as much as possible by predictive analysis and modelling of environment forecasts to reduce the risks. Prelude Floating Liquefied Natural Gas (FLNG) is designed to offload Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) to carrier vessels moored in a side-by-side (SBS) configuration, using Marine Loading Arms (MLA) technology. For onshore terminals or small/medium FLNG, the traditional design of MLA (Double Counterweight Marine Arm – DCMA), featuring a vertical riser, can be used. However due to the exceptional freeboard of Prelude a new type of MLA was designed, namely the Offshore Loading Arm Footless (OLAF), without vertical riser in order to reach the LNG or LPG manifolds located as far as about 16 meters below the MLA base. Thanks to the OLAF design, the length and weight of the articulated MLA sections is reduced in comparison with conventional DCMA, and so are the dynamic loads applied by the MLA on the vessel manifold, which was mandatory to remain below the acceptable stress limit of standard LNG/LPG carrier manifolds. OLAF employs the field proven targeting system (TS) allowing the connection and disconnection of the MLA to the vessel manifold in dynamic conditions. This paper describes the assumptions and process to design and validate this new system — in terms of overall geometry and structural design, while verifying project feasibility, aiming at a reliable design of all components and minimizing the risks during operations. The key challenges and lessons learnt are also discussed. This innovative type of MLA had to be thoroughly designed and tested before being manufactured and assembled on the FLNG. The innovation management was also coupled with the additional challenge imposed by the expected highly dynamic conditions of relative motion between vessels that were never encountered for such systems in the past. MLA were designed with the objective to cover the operable envelope induced by berthing, mooring and relative motion criteria, so that it should not become an additional criterion in general. Since such an envelope is larger for this offshore application compared to sheltered terminals, this objective was particularly challenging but could be met thanks to the OLAF design. The SBS hydrodynamic numerical model is based on potential theory and includes multi-body coupling, non-linear mooring characteristics and coupling with sloshing. This model was calibrated using wave basin tests with a good agreement, and was used to determine the maximum operable environments and associated MLA envelope, using a 39-year hindcast for various LNG carriers and considering a scenario with different criteria and loading conditions. More than 100,000 time-domain simulations were required to evaluate non-linear quantities on a reduced set of environment ‘bins’. The new OLAF-type MLA was developed using these hydrodynamic simulations. Specific processes — based on spectral screening and selection using relevant criteria — were used to identify and select, in a systematic way, the designing load cases for connecting, connected, and emergency disconnection cases, while complying with the maximum allowable loads of conventional LNG and LPG carrier manifolds. An instrumented 1:4 OLAF scale model was built and tested with 6 degrees of freedom hexapods reproducing the motions on both sides of the OLAF which enabled us to confirm a 10% accuracy of the numerical studies results. The actual OLAF were dynamically tested with a full scale motion simulator before shipment to the yard for installation. The successful first operations were performed safely and confirmed the validity of the design. Measurements are now collected onboard Prelude to verify the design and when possible improve the accuracy of numerical modelling.

The transport of liquefied natural gas (LNG) has significant impact on traffic capacity of waterways, especially the approach channels shared by LNG carriers and other types of ships (general cargo ships, container ships, etc.). Few studies take the behavioral characteristics of LNG carriers and their impacts into consideration. In this paper, we propose a framework for capacity analysis of shared approach channels based on the spatial–temporal consumption method. It consists of three modules: (1) the tide module predicts the tidal height and tidal time for identifying the time windows for LNG carriers; (2) the spatial–temporal consumption module is introduced to calculate the capacity of approach channels; (3) the LNG carrier navigation module is for analyzing the characteristics of LNG carriers and the impact on the capacity of approach channels. A spatial–temporal indexed chart is designed to visualize the utilization of the spatial–temporal resources. A case study on the approach channel of Yueqing Bay near the east coast of China is conducted to verify the effectiveness of the framework. The utilization rates of the approach channel and the impact of LNG carriers are presented using our method. The results of the case study indicate that the proposed traffic capacity analyzing framework can provide support for making traffic management strategies.

LNG (liquefied natural gas): A necessary part in China's future energy infrastructure

Energy demand of liquefaction and regasification of natural gas and the potential of LNG for operative thermal energy storage

Liquefied natural gas (LNG) and offshore activities have much in common. - The ultimate goal of each is to produce and deliver hydrocarbons to the market. - The main oil operators are active in LNG as well as other offshore activities (e.g., ExxonMobil, Shell, BP, Total, and ChevronTexaco). - Production is transported over long distances by carriers (even if LNG carriers are far more sophisticated than oil tankers!). But, until now, LNG production plants have always been built onshore, even when gas is produced offshore (e.g., Qatar, Trinidad, and Sakhalin). The first concepts of LNG floating production, storage, and offloading (FPSO) vessels were presented by the industry in the mid-1970s. These concepts were targeting stand-alone gasfield developments or associated gas fields. Even if an LNG FPSO appears economically very attractive when compared with a “grass roots” onshore LNG plant, the operators seem not to have found the proper location or the correct “scheme” to select an LNG FPSO for developing an offshore gas field. At the other end of the LNG chain, huge investments also are foreseen to build facilities for the reception and regasification of LNG to cope with a fast-growing demand for gas. Many terminals are under construction or planned in many countries. This increased demand is not without obstacles. In some areas of North America or Europe (Italy for example), environmental constraints prevent the installation of newly built, land-based LNG terminals. As a result, the projects are moving offshore, taking the shape of fixed, gravity-based structures or floating storage and regasification units. In this offshore move of the LNG industry—“tomorrow” for the receiving terminals and the “day after tomorrow” for LNG FPSOs—those who combine LNG and offshore expertise will be key players in this new arena. Additional Offshore Facilities Construction and Design Technical Papers Available at the SPE eLibrary: www.spe.org SPE 89998 - Subsea HIPPS: A Way To Develop High-Pressure Subsea Fields Available at the OTC Library: www.otcnet.org OTC 16106 - Monitoring of Sand Deposition in Subsea Separators OTC 16185 - High-Strength Aluminum Alloys for Deepwater Riser Applications

Last year, 244 million tonnes per annum (MTPA) of liquefied natural gas (LNG) was transported around the globe. The recent shale gas revolution, coupled with low domestic natural gas prices, has led many operators in the US to consider export of their gas to more lucrative markets in Asia and Europe. More than 25 LNG projects have been proposed in the US, totaling a capacity of more than 200 MTPA. The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) has approved five LNG terminals in the US. Most experts believe US LNG export capabilities will be about 10% of domestic production in the coming years, which puts LNG export estimates between 6 and 8 Bscf/D. The question remains, where will all of this gas come from? The vast amount of increased gas production in the onshore US will come from growth in the shale gas plays. These plays, including the Barnett, Fayetteville, Woodford, Marcellus, Haynesville, Eagle Ford, and others, will be further exploited to supply domestic needs and the new LNG export demand. A typical proposed US LNG train is estimated to output 4.5 MTPA, which requires an input of around 636 MMscf/D. It will take a significant quantity of shale gas wells to deliver enough gas to keep a train at full capacity. This paper addresses the impact that LNGdriven natural gas demand will have on the future development of shale gas plays in the US. Increased demand on domestic US natural gas supplies will be met with increased development drilling. In order to quantify the impact of LNG exports on the market, this paper considers the number of horizontal shale gas wells needed to supply one LNG train continuously. Shale gas basins around the US were studied to estimate both the number of wells needed to supply a train initially and the number and frequency of future wells that will need to be drilled to maintain the train at full capacity. Current activities, including infrastructure and rig counts, decline trends, economics, and drilling times are included in the analysis. This paper discusses the impact future increased LNG gas demand will have on the field development plans of shale gas plays and identifies probable future activity levels in shale gas basins due to exploitation activity focused on LNG supply. The feasibility of LNG export from the US is a topic of debate, and this paper will provide context and rationale for the discussions. LNG Global Historical Perspective LNG has been around for over 100 years. LNG was discovered during a focus on cryogenics in the late 1800s when scientists took on the challenge to liquefy all known gases. In 1886, natural gas was first liquefied by lowering its temperature to –260°F. LNG didn’t have much commercial application until the discovery that liquefying natural gas was a way to produce helium. LNG was the first discovered means to capture helium in large quantities. Helium was believed to be a rare element and it was the last gas to be liquefied in 1908. Once the process to liquefy natural gas had been developed, the next challenge was its transportation. The idea of transporting LNG was advanced during World War I, as governments sought to utilize the extremely valuable and rare helium in dirigibles (The Oil Drum 2012; Hrastar 2014). The first US patent for LNG shipping URTeC 2015 Page 2328

Chapter 4 - LNG Carrier

04/03001 Power optimization of open-cycle regeneratorgas-turbine power-plants: Chen, L. et al. Applied Energy, 2004, 78, (2), 199–218

In recent years, there has been an exponential increase in LNG liquefaction and regasification capacity of many countries. The factors underlying this growth are the use of LNG to produce electricity, a reduction in costs due to technological advances and the current environmental concerns. In Italy, natural gas is transported into pipelines and LNG mainly by road, starting from coastal storage facilities, or from docks. But together with the development of these activities there is also a need to assess and counter the related risks. The handling of tanks offers dispersion scenarios connected to collision or impact, or to leaks during LNG transfer operations. So, there may be a need for emergency LNG transferring, managing the risks of the scenario. Some emergency procedures and safety measures for LNG storage and transport have been studied by the Italian Firefighters. This work offers a brief overview of the risks and safety measures associated with LNG storage and road transport in Italy and Europe.

This paper describes the important regulatory changes underway in the United States (US) that will dramatically affect the design, construction, and operation of offshore terminals for importing liquefied natural gas (LNG). Numerous US oil and gas companies are developing projects to build offshore terminals for importing LNG into the US. As the offshore LNG terminal concept applies new technology, regulatory and technical design rules that will apply to these facilities are rapidly evolving. With the passage of the Maritime Transportation Security Act of 2002, the Deepwater Port Act of 1974 (DWPA) (33 USC 1501-1524) has been amended to include natural gas, fundamentally altering the regulatory process for offshore LNG terminals. Whereas the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) and the US Coast Guard (USCG) previously played important roles in permitting and regulating onshore LNG facilities, the USCG and the US Maritime Administration (MARAD) now share the primary responsibility of regulating these facilities offshore, with subsidiary roles played by other federal agencies and the involved states. This paper examines the USCG's new role in offshore LNG terminal development, as well as the major requirements the DWPA imposes on applicants. The USCG will soon publish implementing regulations. DWPA requirements that previously applied to oil, now provide clues regarding the likely environmental review process. Although the USCG will be moving to the Department of Homeland Security, siting and operational oversight for deepwater ports is expected to remain with the Secretary of the Department of Transportation (SECDOT). This paper examines the Deepwater Port regulatory process and describes how these complex licensing requirements could affect the proposed siting, commercial viability, and environmental regulatory review of offshore LNG terminals. This paper also examines current efforts by various classification societies to develop technical guidance regarding the design, construction, and ongoing maintenance of offshore LNG terminals. The ABS Guidance Notes on Building and Classing Offshore LNG Terminals will be presented as an example of classification society efforts to fill the US regulatory void that currently exists for the technical requirements of offshore LNG terminals. In conclusion, this paper proposes a process to combine current regulations with classification society guidance as an effective means of developing appropriate design, construction, and operational requirements for offshore LNG terminals. Such a process may be helpful to US regulators in expediting the regulatory approval process for offshore LNG terminals currently being developed. Finally, this paper assists developers of offshore LNG terminals in understanding the complex US regulatory process and developing effective strategies to expedite critical regulatory approvals. The US Regulatory Scheme for LNG Terminals Prior to the passage of the Maritime Transportation Security Act of 2002 by Congress, and its signing by President Bush on November 25, 2002, FERC had jurisdiction over the siting of LNG import terminals under Section 3 of the Natural Gas Act. FERC asserted that this authority applied to both onshore and offshore LNG terminals.

The market of LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) carrier is continuously in a prosperous condition, and a lot of LNG vessels are being built in many shipyards. Membrane-type MARK-III LNG CCS (Cargo Containment System) is used more and more in the construction of LNG carrier, and it has already taken considerable market share among the various LNG CCS products. This paper deals with a study on structural safety of LNG carrier whose inner hull structure is affected by cryogenic temperature of LNG. If the primary and secondary barriers are failed simultaneously, the inner hull structure comes to be in direct contact with LNG. It is well known that the cryogenic temperature exposes the inner hull structure to fatal risk of structural failure due to brittle fracture, but nevertheless it is quite difficult to find a precedent research which explains the degree of risk and severity with due consideration of the consequence caused by structural failure of inner hull. The heat transfer test has been performed using the specimen appropriate to realize test scenario while considering cryogenic liquid flow from primary and secondary barrier into inner hull structure, and at the same time, the specimen has been tested by applying proper deformation so as to examine the structural behavior of inner hull structure under cryogenic condition. The heat transfer analysis has been performed to simulate and verify the heat transfer test, and consequently it is possible to obtain actual distribution of temperature in the inner hull structure exposed to cryogenic temperature. The structural analysis has been performed to evaluate the damage of inner hull structure and as a result to assess overall decrease of hull girder strength of LNG carrier. Finally, consequence of the decrease of global strength has been discussed.