Wireless Power Transfer for Light-Duty Plug-in/Electric Vehicles and Alignment Methodology

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Notice of Concern: The Publisher has put a notice of caution and inquiry on this paper because of an expression of concern about the figures and so have temporarily withdrawn the article. We will update after our investigation. </div></div>

<div class="section abstract"> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This SAE Information Report SAE J2836/6™ establishes use cases for communication between plug-in electric vehicles and the EVSE, for wireless energy transfer as specified in SAE J2954. It addresses the requirements for communications between the on-board charging system and the Wireless EV Supply Equipment (WEVSE) in support of detection of the WEVSE, the charging process, and monitoring of the charging process.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Since the communication to the charging infrastructure and the power grid for smart charging will also be communicated by the WEVSE to the EV over the wireless interface, these requirements are also covered. However, the processes and procedures are expected to be identical to those specified for V2G communications specified in SAE J2836/1.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Where relevant, the specification notes interactions that may be required between the vehicle and vehicle operator, but does not formally specify them. Similarly communications between the on-board charging sub-system and the on-board vehicle electronics is not formally specified in this document.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This is the 1st version of this document and completes step 1 effort that captures the initial objectives of the SAE task force. The intent of step 1 was to record as much information on “what we think works” and publish. The effort continues however, to step 2 that allows public review for additional comments and viewpoints, while the task force also continues additional testing and early implementation. Results of step 2 effort will then be incorporated into updates of this document and lead to a republished version.</div> </div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Residual brake torque (RBT) is generated in disc brakes as a result of contact between brake disc and brake pads when the braking pressure is not applied. Among the negative implications of RBT are, notably, dispensable additional fuel consumption as well as increased pad (taper) wear.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Several properties of the brake system have a direct influence on the level of residual torque [<span class="xref">1</span>].</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">A major effect is connected to the caliper properties determining the clearance gap. This is characterized by the default air gap between pads and disc and its distribution regarding vehicle inner and outer sides (piston and fist sides for floating type calipers).</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Initial air gap is mainly influenced by the sealing grove design (between piston and housing, where the sealing ring is positioned). The retraction of the piston due to the sealing ring, also called rollback, mainly depends on the load case (e.g. applied pressure and temperature). Insufficient air gap will lead to residual clamping forces between pads and rotor and thus the friction coefficient itself influences residual brake torque directly.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">In addition, there are also parameters which can exert influence on the residual brake torque, which are not caliper, but primarily rotor-related. These include axial thermal deformation, thermal coning effects, lateral runout (LRO) of the rotor due to geometrical tolerances and also LRO excited by tensioning the rotor to the wheel hub.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">These influences on caliper drag are typically well known and understood at least qualitatively. To accomplish customer’s requirements according to RBT, the calipers are extensively tested (e.g. NEDC/WLTP, coast down, ATE) in different test procedures on dynamometers. Some test specifications contain ambitious requirements on the intended drag torque (e.g. less than 0.1 Nm).</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">In contrast to the requirements, other possible influencing parameters, e.g. disc deflection, caused by vehicle dynamics, is currently not included in any RBT-test on dynamometer. During e.g. curve driving, the lateral forces are generated between tire and road and can also be transferred into the rim/rotor/hub/bearing contact at the knuckle.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Additionally this is overlain by the wheel load. It must be assumed that the side forces and wheel load affect the deflection of the disc. Thus, this may also influence residual brake torque.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper shows Continental’s setup for application of wheel load and side forces on dynamometer. Based on previous results from vehicle test, the disc deflection during dynamic driving is characterized and the wheel load setup was enhanced to apply side forces. Different positions of side force and wheel load induction are compared.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Furthermore the setup is used to identify the influence of dynamic disc deflection on caliper drag. This is done with an exemplarily floating-type caliper (FN). Dedicated measurements illustrate the influence of left and right curve driving on the level of RBT.</div></div>

Regulatory significance of transfer RNA charging levels I. Measurements of charging levels in livers of chow-fed rats, fasting rats, and rats fed balanced or imbalanced mixtures of amino acids

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">The paper reports an investigation into employing a “lambda leap” (λ leap) strategy for hydrogen internal combustion engines (H₂ICEs), wherein inherently low emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) are afforded at light load via operation at lambda 2.5, and at higher load by operation at stoichiometry utilizing a three-way catalyst (TWC) for NOx control.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This approach means it is necessary under transient operation to “leap” between high values of lambda and stoichiometry from one cycle to the next, in order to avoid completely the λ ≈ 1.3 area where high combustion NOx is generated away from lambda equal to 1; this is because lean catalysis of NOx will be extremely challenging at the rate that it is generated there. To achieve this, a short cam profile was introduced to reduce air mass flow by 57.5%, enabling this leap without changing the fuel injection amount, while preserving favorable combustion characteristics via an early Miller cycle.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The study models a 2.0 L inline four-cylinder turbocharged engine converted to hydrogen operation and equipped with the necessary valvetrain functionality. Engine maps show that the λLeap strategy increases peak brake efficiency to 38.6% and positions the high-efficiency region in a more usable part of the operating range of the engine. Vehicle-level simulations across three driving cycles (NEDC, WLTP, FTP75) and three vehicle classes (sedan, medium SUV, large SUV) show fuel consumption reductions of up to 9.9% and engine-out NOx reductions exceeding 50% compared to stoichiometric-only operation.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The paper also explains why the strategy would be especially beneficial for light-duty H₂ICEs, given that they have different operating areas compared to heavy-duty ones, and why vehicle packaging, mass, and drag advantages would accrue as well. Finally, some discussion is made regarding how H₂ICEs might benefit from upsizing of their swept volumes if this strategy is successfully employed.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This SAE Standard describes a laboratory test procedure for measuring the vibration damping performance of a system consisting of a damping material bonded to a vibrating cantilevered steel bar. The bar is often called the Oberst bar (named after Dr. H. Oberst) and the test method is often called the Oberst bar test method. Materials for damping treatments may include homogeneous materials, nonhomogeneous materials, or a combination of homogeneous, nonhomogeneous, and/or inelastic (such as aluminum foil) materials. These materials are commonly installed in transportation systems such as ground vehicles, marine products, and aircraft to reduce vibration at resonance, and thus reduce the noise radiation from the vibrating surface. The test method described herein was developed to rank order materials for application on panels using general automotive steel but also may be applicable to other situations or conditions.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Damping performance for most materials and systems varies as a function of both frequency and temperature. Accordingly, this test procedure includes provisions for measuring damping over a range of frequencies and temperatures found applicable to many transportation systems. The measured damping performance will be expressed in terms of composite loss factor, η<sub>c</sub>, within the frequency range of approximately 100 to 1000 Hz, and over the useful temperature range for the given application. The term composite refers to the steel and damping material combination. The composite loss factor is, therefore, dependent upon the thickness, damping, and modulus of both the steel and damping material layer.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The test procedure described here is based on the method described in ASTM E756. However, this SAE document differs from the ASTM E756 method in that the SAE practice specifies the bar material, three bar sizes, the mounting conditions of the test samples, and suggested standard interpolation frequencies. This document provides a means of rank ordering damping materials according to their composite loss factor values from test samples that represent typical sheet metal applications.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The material properties of the damping material alone, including Young’s modulus E, and the material loss factor η, may be computed from the test samples specified in this document if additional conditions are met. ASTM E756 defines these additional conditions as well as the equations to be used to compute the damping material properties for the single layer (Oberst beam) configuration.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This SAE Recommended Practice describes a laboratory test procedure for measuring the vibration damping performance of a system consisting of a damping material bonded to a vibrating cantilevered steel bar. The bar is often called the Oberst bar (named after Dr. H. Oberst) and the test method is often called the Oberst Bar Test Method. Materials for damping treatments may include homogeneous materials, nonhomogeneous materials, or a combination of homogeneous, nonhomogeneous, and/or inelastic (such as aluminum foil) materials. These materials are commonly installed in transportation systems such as ground vehicles, marine products, and aircraft to reduce vibration at resonance, and thus reduce the noise radiation from the vibrating surface. However, the test method described herein was developed to rank order materials used in PASSENGER VEHICLE APPLICATIONS with steel sheet metal and may not be fully applicable to other situations.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Damping performance for most materials and systems varies as a function of both frequency and temperature. Accordingly, this test procedure includes provisions for measuring damping over a range of frequencies and temperatures found applicable to many transportation systems. The measured damping performance will be expressed in terms of composite loss factor, η<sub>c</sub>, within the frequency range of approximately 100 to 1000 Hz, and over the useful temperature range for the given application. The term composite refers to the steel and damping material combination.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The test procedure described here is based on the method described in ASTM E 756. However, this SAE document differs from the ASTM E 756 method in that the SAE practice specifies the bar material, the bar size, and the mounting conditions of the test samples. This document provides a means of rank ordering damping materials according to their composite loss factor values from test samples that represent typical passenger vehicle applications.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The ASTM E 756 should be followed to determine the damping properties of materials alone, including loss factor η, Young's modulus E, and shear modulus G.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This Information Report presents background and rationale for SAE Recommended Practice J1106, Laboratory Testing Machine and Procedures for Measuring the Steady Force and Moment Properties of Passenger Car Tires. The purpose of SAE J1106 is to define standards for equipment design and test procedures so that data from different laboratories can be directly compared. Whereas such standardization is not a requirement for testing associated with tire development, it is necessary in the context of vehicle design and tire selection problems.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The basic approach employed in developing SAE J1106 was to consolidate and document existing technology as embodied in equipment and procedures currently employed for routine tire evaluations. Equipment and procedures whose current use is restricted to research applications were not considered. Research experience is discussed in this Information Report, however, to the extent deemed necessary to provide background and rationale for SAE J1106. Material is therefore included on speed effects, contaminants dynamic testing, traction, surface geometry, and other subjects not considered in SAE J1106. The scope was expanded in an effort to anticipate questions raised by SAE J1106.</div> </div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">As model-based systems engineering is proliferating throughout the aerospace industry as a method to manage the development of complex cyber-physical systems, opportunities to leverage formal methods for verification and validation purposes are significant. As a system model described in SysML can contain the level of semantics required to define strict system requirements, it is possible to create a translation tool to generate SRL (SADL (Semantic Application Design Language) Requirements Language) to leverage ASSERT™ (Analysis of Semantic Specifications and Efficient generation of requirements-based Tests) for verification and validation of the system requirements. SADL [<span class="xref">13</span>] is a controlled English grammar that translates directly into OWL (Web Ontology Language) [<span class="xref">14</span>]. As part of the validation of the SRL requirements, ASSERT™ leverages a theorem prover to look for conflict and completeness errors. For verification, ASSERT™ uses a Satisfiability Modulo Theories (SMT) solver for the generation of test cases and procedures. This paper extends the Braking System Control Unit (BSCU) portion of the Wheel Braking System (WBS) example within Appendix E of ARP4754B [<span class="xref">2</span>] described in [<span class="xref">1</span>] to demonstrate an example of capturing system requirements in Cameo using SysML, creating test cases and procedures from ASSERT™ exporting from SysML and translating to SRL/SADL, and exporting the Cameo system model data along with the test cases, test procedures, and requirements analysis data from ASSERT™ into the Rapid Assurance Curation Kit (RACK). RACK is a data curation platform which facilitates reporting on Development Assurance and safety assessments guidelines like those used for aircraft certification.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Additional future requirements for automobiles such as improved vehicle dynamics control, enhanced comfort, increased safety and compact packaging are met by modern electrical steering systems.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Based on these requirements the new functionality is realized by various additional electrical components for measuring, signal processing and actuator control. However, the reliability of these new systems has to meet the standard of today's automotive steering products. To achieve the demands of the respective components (e.g. sensors, bus systems, electronic control units, power units, actuators) the systems have to be fault-tolerant and/or fail-silent. The realization of the derived safety structures requires both expertise and experience in design and mass production of safety relevant electrical systems. Beside system safety and system availability the redundant electrical systems also have to meet economic and market requirements.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Within this scope the paper discusses three different realizations of electrical steering systems</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"> <ol class="list nostyle"> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">1</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Electrical power steering system (mechanical system with electrical boosting)</div></li> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">2</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Steer-by-wire system with hydraulic back-up and</div></li> <li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">3</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Full steer-by-wire system</div></li> </ol> </div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The paper presents solutions for these systems and discusses the various advantages and disadvantages, respectively. Furthermore strategies for failure detection, failure localization and failure treatment are presented. Finally the various specifications for the components used are discussed.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has developed moving deformable barriers for vehicle crash test procedures to assess vehicle and occupant response in partial overlap vehicle crashes.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">For this paper, based on the NHTSA Oblique Test procedure, a mid-size sedan was tested. The intent of this research was to provide insight into possible design changes to enhance the oblique collision performance of vehicles.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The test results predicted high injury risk for BrIC, chest deflection, and the lower extremities. In this particular study, reducing lower extremity injuries has been focused on. Traditionally, lower extremity injuries have been reduced by limiting the intrusion of the lower region of the cabin's toe-board.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">In this study, it is assumed that increasing the energy absorbed within the engine compartment is more efficient than reinforcing the passenger compartment as a method to reduce lower extremity injuries. However, CAE analysis for the NHTSA Oblique test shows that reinforcing the engine compartment structure can result in an increase in vehicle aggressiveness.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">An issue is that the Research Moving Deformable Barrier (RMBD) Oblique Test will lead to an overall increase in vehicle aggressiveness. The RMDB oblique crash alone is not an effective assessment of collision compatibility.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Three established and widely used laboratory tests were evaluated for their ability to distinguish between the flexibility of automotive finishes and their ability to predict in-service behavior of plastic automotive bumper/fascia parts. This evaluation was made by correlating the laboratory tests with the bumper impact test which is a representative slice of in-service behavior. The tests - mandrel bend, drop dart, and driven dart were evaluated using four currently used flexible plastic substrates and three urethane modified acrylic-polyester automotive finishes.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The drop dart and driven dart test showed a better correlation with the bumper impact test, than the mandrel bend test. The degree of correlation is explained on the basis of similarity between the stress states during impact.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The bumper impact test is not able to distinguish between the flexibility of three automotive finishes studied because they are above the minimum flexibility level required for the substrates studied. The mandrel bend test is able to distinguish between the flexibility of the three finishes.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The increasing use of flexible plastic substrates to fabricate automobile body components has created a need for exterior finishes that are adaptable to both metal and composite substrates. These coatings, referred to as “universal” coatings, have to be rigid enough to be finessed and flexible enough to pass MVSS requirements while maintaining all other properties required of automotive finishes. Currently, rigid clearcoat finishes are used on body while flexible clearcoats are used on the composite fascia. The flexible clearcoats are highly flexible even at -30<sup>°</sup>C to assure good performance in the field. Universal coatings require a balance between rigidity and flexibility to insure satisfactory field performance. If the correlation to field performance were known more realistic specifications could be established.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Currently the flexibility of painted composites is measured by bending a piece of painted substrate around a mandrel fixture. This test, known as the mandrel bend test, plays an important role in the development of flexible automotive finishes. This study was undertaken to correlate flexibility as measured by the mandrel bend test with field performance and to evaluate two other lab tests for correlation with field performance.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Test procedures, flexible composites and automotive finishes were selected which were representative of current production materials and lab procedures. The bumper impact test conducted by the ACG Group of General Motors (Inland Fisher Guide Division) is a representative slice of field performance.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">This article follows a companion article [<span class="xref">1</span>] presented at the SAE NVC 2021, in which a new system for the measurement on small samples of the normal-incidence Insertion Loss (IL) of multilayers used for the manufacturing of automotive sound package parts was first introduced. In addition to simplifying the evaluation of the sound-insulation of multi-layers used to produce sound-package components, the system aims at overcoming the limitations of the test procedure based on the ASTM E2611 standard.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">In this article, the latter point is demonstrated by comparing the insertion loss results obtained with the new system with those obtained with the test procedure based on the ASTM E2611 standard on a few multilayers commonly used for the manufacturing of automotive sound package parts. Results indicate that the data obtained by means of the newly developed system are more meaningful, practically usable and less prone to edge-effects, compared to those obtained according to the ASTM E2611 test procedure.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">In addition to this, the article compares also the results obtained by means of the new system with those obtained in a compact two-cabins facility commonly used for the evaluation of diffuse-field insertion loss following the ASTM E90 standard, a quantity customarily employed in the automotive industry for the assessment of the sound insulation of acoustic multilayers. Results indicate that the data obtained with the new system compare well with those obtained with the two-cabins facility, both quantitatively and qualitatively. This indicates that sound-insulation tests with the new system may be a valid alternative to much more resource-consuming tests in two-chamber facilities, in particular (but not only) when the sound insulation of moulded parts must be assessed.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">A European test procedure for evaluating engine deposits, using the Mercedes Benz M111 bench engine, has already been approved for inlet valve deposits (IVD) and is under development for combustion chamber deposits (CCD) by the Co-ordinating European Council (CEC). This paper describes CCD effects on emissions using a slightly modified version of this engine test procedure and compares it with CCD/emissions data from road vehicles.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The engine used was a modern four valve, four cylinder, 2.0 litre passenger car unit and the bench test procedure used extended the operating time from the specified 60 hours to 180 hours. The road vehicle trial used two Mercedes Benz C200 passenger cars fitted with the M111 engine and two Ford Mondeo 2.0 litre passenger cars. Data was collected up to 11200km, approximately equivalent to 180 hours operation of the bench engine.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">For both bench and road vehicles, CCD was monitored by measuring CCD thickness on the piston crown through the spark plug hole, together with measurements of the overall changes in CCD and IVD mass on completion of the test. Engine out emissions were measured continuously throughout each engine test and periodically during the road trials.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The results have established how CCD, NOx and fuel economy vary with time/mileage for both the M111 bench engine and for two models of road vehicles. Trends between CCD growth and the changes in NOx and fuel consumption were in broad agreement for both the engine tests and the road trials. These results increase the confidence in the M111 test as an effective means of not only measuring CCDs but also linking deposits to associated NOx emission changes.</div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">The aim of this paper is to present the Hermes Thermal Control Concept which constitutes the reference baseline for the phase 2 of the Hermes program.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The technical solutions based on active and passive means, are dictated by a variety of requirements including temperature and heat flux limits, mass & power minimization, availability of space for accommodation of TCS devices.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Furthermore thecomplex mission profile (including atmospheric flight and several modes of operation o002d;orbit) and the configuration of the space-vehicle, require the adoption of a particularly flexible thermal control.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The <b>ATCS (Active Thermal Control Section)</b> is based on a dual loop concept, using both water and Freon R114 cooling loops for heat collection from the various sources, heat transportation and heat rejection through dedicated devices.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The main heat sources to be considered are those extracted from the cabin air loop, the electronics, the power generation items (fuel cells and lithium batteries) and the environmental loads during ascent and re-entry.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The major heat rejection devices are the Ground Support Equipment Heat Exchangers (on ground, before launch and after landing), the Ammonia Boilers during ascent or re-entry (low altitude), the Hermes Radiators on orbit, the Water Evaporators during ascent and re-entry (high altitudes) and to complement the radiator rejection capability.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The <b>PTCS (Passive Thermal Control Section)</b> relies on different concepts of insulations together with a system of temperature sensors and heaters, to control the thermal excursions of the space-plane components and structural parts, within the specified limits.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Thermal insulation blankets (foams, thermal control coatings, multi layer insulations) involve an extensive material research and testing activity, since they are subjected to quite different conditions: vacuum, atmospheric, internal, external and very different level of temperatures depending on the location.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The present design of the Thermal Control Subsystem is oriented to the minimization of mass and power budgets and to respect the quantitative and qualitative safety and reliability requirements.</div>