Background: Despite a progressive constitutional and legal framework that guarantees equality and prohibits discrimination, Roma, Ashkali, and Egyptian communities in Kosovo continue to face systemic and multifaceted discrimination in nearly every aspect of public and private life. These communities, although constitutionally recognised and protected under both domestic and international standards—including the European Convention on Human Rights and the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities—remain among the most marginalised groups in Kosovo. Legal instruments such as the Law on Protection from Discrimination and the Law on the Protection and Promotion of the Rights of Communities and their Members aim to safeguard these communities, yet the gap between legal guarantees and the practical realisation of rights remains substantial. Socioeconomic exclusion, limited access to education, health care, housing, and justice, as well as widespread prejudice and institutional neglect, contribute to the persistence of discrimination, particularly in the post-conflict and transitional governance context of Kosovo. Methods: This study employs a multidisciplinary methodological approach, combining normative legal analysis with empirical data and case study evaluations. Legal analysis focuses on constitutional guarantees, statutory protections, and case law from both domestic and international courts, including the Constitutional Court of Kosovo and the European Court of Human Rights. Empirical data are drawn from the National Platform for Anti-discrimination measures, institutional reports, court verdicts, and civil society monitoring. The case study method is used to highlight documented instances of discrimination, ranging from hate speech and denial of public services to employment discrimination and violations of the right to education. Through document and content analysis of legislation, official decisions, and human rights reports, the study investigates the disjunction between law and practice, aiming to identify systemic patterns and shortcomings. Results and conclusions: Findings indicate that while Kosovo’s legal and institutional frameworks formally provide robust protections against discrimination, their implementation is weak and inconsistent. Marginalisation of the Roma, Ashkali, and Egyptian communities remains deeply entrenched due to inadequate enforcement of legal norms, limited institutional responsiveness, and low public awareness among the communities themselves. Case studies illustrate forms of discrimination, including housing denial for returnees, restriction of peaceful assembly, hate speech leading to violence, and institutional bias in employment. Reports reveal that fear of retaliation and lack of trust in institutions inhibit reporting, while accountability for perpetrators—particularly within public institutions and among private actors—remains rare. The establishment of mechanisms such as the National Platform for Anti-Discrimination measures represents a positive step, yet its reach and impact are constrained by insufficient resourcing and promotion.The study concludes that legal guarantees must be supplemented by targeted, community-specific awareness campaigns, strengthened institutional accountability, and affirmative state measures to combat structural inequality. Without political will, sustained oversight, and inclusive policymaking, discrimination will remain a lived reality for these communities. Kosovo must transform its legal commitments into practical safeguards that ensure dignity, equality, and full participation for Roma, Ashkali, and Egyptian communities in all spheres of public life.

Background: Judicial control of administrative action has traditionally focused on the legality of administrative acts with little regard for the consequences of the administrative dispute. This was changed by the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) through its interpretation of the right of access to court under Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights. The ECtHR expanded this right to include the enforceability of administrative court judgments, prompting a shift in the role of the administrative judiciary toward ensuring the effective resolution of disputes. This has influenced reforms across European countries, many of which have introduced mechanisms to support administrative courts in delivering more effective judicial protection. This article has two main objectives: first, to examine how administrative disputes have evolved from merely assessing the legality of administrative acts to ensuring effective judicial protection of individuals by expanding the right to a fair trial, and second, to analyse how this shift has influenced national legal frameworks, with a focus on mechanisms that empower courts to enforce their decisions and conclusively resolve disputes. Methods: The historical method is employed to trace the development of judicial control in administrative disputes and the influence of ECtHR case law. The logical method supports the analysis of key judgments, demonstrating the evolving interpretation of the right to a fair trial. The comparative method assesses how different European legal systems have adapted their frameworks to strengthen the enforceability of administrative court decisions. The systemic method ensures the internal coherence of findings, while the dogmatic method interprets relevant legal norms. Finally, the axiological method is employed to critically evaluate reforms and their alignment with core legal values. Results and Conclusions: The enforceability of administrative court judgments gained prominence with the ECtHR’s Hornsby case, which recognised that the right to a fair trial includes the execution of judgments. This understanding has led to substantial reforms across Europe to increase the effectiveness of administrative justice. While these reforms have improved individual rights protection and dispute resolution, they must respect constitutional principles, particularly the separation of powers and judicial impartiality.

Background: Since 2014, Ukraine has made significant progress in establishing its anti- corruption framework. However, the communication channels of the country's anti-corruption agencies remain limited, preventing the open and accessible dissemination of information regarding their activities. Transparency, as a critical feature of information openness, guarantees that civil society can access relevant governmental data. In this context, investigative journalism has proven to be a vital tool for exposing corruption and holding authorities accountable. This paper examines the role of journalism in combating corruption in Ukraine, emphasising its importance as a tool for ensuring government accountability and transparency. It provides an overview of Ukraine's anti-corruption policies and institutions, exploring theoretical models of media-government-society relations. Considering the 'Public Watchdogs' Right to Access Information, the article addresses the complexities surrounding the right to access information under wartime conditions and analyses whether investigative journalism can lead to the exposure of corrupt officials that prompt state anti-corruption bodies to take action. Methods: This article applies McQuail’s theory of democratic participation to examine the role of journalism in reporting corruption cases and promoting transparency. To investigate the current state of transparency in Ukraine's anti-corruption efforts, it employs content analysis of the websites of three key institutions: the National Agency on Corruption Prevention, the National Anti-Corruption Bureau, and the High Anti-Corruption Court of Ukraine, including its Appeals Chamber. The analysis highlights challenges related to the openness and accessibility of the information provided by these institutions. Results and Conclusions: Findings indicate that while state anti-corruption agencies formally provide access to information through their websites, journalists encounter significant barriers to timely and systematic access. The research highlights the impact of martial law on information access, emphasising the state's discretion in balancing security concerns with transparency obligations. The study concludes with recommendations for improving the communication strategies of anti-corruption bodies, proposing measures to enhance transparency and public trust.

Background: The advent of computers has transformed personal information into a valuable asset. Online behavioural advertising seeks to match advertising with Internet users. However, many online behavioural advertising companies often use data collection and processing methods that violate the rights of Internet users when extracting and analysing personal data to track and profile online behavioural advertising. These risks may be related to discrimination, inequality, stereotyping, stigmatisation, and inaccuracy in decision-making. This affects the privacy of users. EU law has clear regulations on consent to process personal data in online behavioural advertising. In contrast, Vietnamese law has notable limitations, especially in recording consent to process personal data. It is necessary to improve Vietnamese law on the issue of consent to process personal data based on the provisions of EU law. Methods: The article uses the analytical method to clarify the concept of personal data processing and the characteristics of online behavioural advertising. The analytical method also indicates the possibility that online behavioural advertising can hurt personal information. This method is also used to analyse EU law protecting personal data in online behavioural advertising, thereby finding experiences that Vietnamese law can learn from. The article also uses the comparative method. This method is mainly used to compare EU law and Vietnamese law related to the provisions on consent to process personal data in online behavioural advertising. Combined with the above analysis method, the comparative method shows the advantages of EU law compared to Vietnamese law on the issue of consent to process personal data in online behavioural advertising. From there, the article can make policy recommendations to improve Vietnamese law on this issue. Results and conclusions: The article concludes that Vietnam can learn from the EU on the requirement that consent to process personal data in online behavioural advertising must be given freely, with knowledge, specifically, and clearly. The article proposes policy recommendations for Vietnam on personal data consent in online behavioural advertising. First, the law must consistently define "personal data" and "personal data protection." Second, it specifies the adequate time for the data subject's consent

Background: The recognition and enforcement of foreign arbitral awards reflect the business climate of a given country. Foreign investors and businesses closely monitor whether these processes align with established international standards, as they may affect their business. The business community prioritises effective dispute resolution and enforcement procedures. Thus, for Uzbekistan, addressing this matter is important not only to improve its business climate and attract foreign investment but also, from a wider perspective, to ensure access to justice. Methods: This research is based on primary data collected from court decisions on the recognition and enforcement of foreign arbitral awards in Uzbekistan. It employs both qualitative and quantitative research methods. These decisions are then subjected to legal review and analysis to assess their compliance with international standards, utilising a comparative legal research approach. The research is also underpinned by relevant legal scholarship and international case law. Results and conclusions: An analysis of Uzbek court decisions on the recognition and enforcement of foreign arbitral awards from December 2018 until June 2024 has led to key findings and conclusions. While minor oversights were observed at the first-instance court level, economic courts followed the international standards of a pro-enforcement approach and narrow interpretation of the grounds for refusal of the applications for recognition and enforcement. In most cases, the Supreme Court of Uzbekistan demonstrated a commitment to aligning with best international practices in this area. Additionally, economic courts interpret public policy narrowly, which is in line with international standards.

Background: Since the outbreak of the armed conflict in 2011, Syria has suffered widespread destruction, resulting in the collapse of its infrastructure and substantial human and material losses, which continue to affect millions of civilians today. Iran has played a major role in supporting the Syrian regime politically, financially, and logistically throughout the conflict, thereby potentially prolonging hostilities and exacerbating the humanitarian situation. This paper examines the extent of Iran's responsibility toward Syrian victims under international humanitarian law and public international law and explores potential legal mechanisms to hold Iran accountable while safeguarding the rights of affected individuals. Methods: The study employs a descriptive-analytical method to document violations and examine relevant international legal texts. The study also employs a comparative method to analyse similar international experiences, such as the conflicts in the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda, to develop tangible legal solutions applicable to the Syrian context. Results and conclusions: The results demonstrate that Iran and its affiliated militias bear clear legal responsibility for violations of international humanitarian law. The findings underscore the necessity of establishing a competent international criminal court to address the crimes committed during the Syrian conflict, ensure accountability for perpetrators, and facilitate the redress of victims and the restoration of their rights.

Background: Contractual negotiations conducted by artificial intelligence (AI) systems raise profound legal challenges, most notably the question of allocating civil liability for damages caused by their errors. This study, employing a comparative analytical methodology, reveals a significant regulatory gap in Arab jurisdictions—particularly Egypt and the United Arab Emirates—where legislation lacks explicit provisions governing such liability. In contrast, recent European Union initiatives, including the risk-based approach of the AI Act and the emerging framework of the AI Liability Directive, place primary emphasis on the accountability of developers and operators. Against this backdrop, the paper advocates for the development of a specialised Arab legal framework that draws inspiration from comparative models while preserving local specificities. Such a framework should include: a precise legal definition of intelligent systems, concrete evidentiary mechanisms for fault attribution and liability distribution, the establishment of a dedicated supervisory authority, and the strengthening of insurance mechanisms as complementary safeguards. Methods: This study employs a comparative analytical method to examine civil liability for AI errors in contractual negotiations, focusing on tort and contractual theories under Egyptian and Emirati law, and contrasting them with recent EU developments—particularly the AI Liability Directive and the Data Act, which provide clearer guidance than the AI Act. Results and conclusions: The comparative analysis yields three main results. First, there is a clear regulatory gap in Arab jurisdictions, which continue to rely on general civil law provisions without specialised rules for AI. Second, doctrinal differences between strict liability in the EU and the broader remedial approach in Arab systems complicate any direct transposition of European models. Third, evidentiary challenges remain central in both systems, as establishing fault and causation in AI-related harm is inherently complex.

Background: Martial law in Ukraine and the state of emergency in Lithuania have changed the daily lifestyles of many residents of these countries. The circumstances necessitating the introduction of these special regimes have also increased the risk of illegal activities, including corruption, in these territories. Methods: This study applied a comprehensive approach that included a thorough analysis of Ukrainian and Lithuanian anti-corruption legislation, reports on the implementation of anticorruption measures during the state of emergency in Lithuania and martial law in Ukraine, and content analysis of news media. The researcher surveyed 13 anti-corruption experts in Ukraine and, based on their answers and previous research materials, identified the factors that contribute to the spread of corruption in Ukraine during martial law and in Lithuania during its state of emergency. Survey results were also used to determine measures to control and prevent corruption during periods of exception in these countries. Results and Conclusion: The study of corruption in these contexts provides insight into the factors contributing to the spread of corruption. The anti-corruption experts in Ukraine selected the following factors as the greatest contributors to corruption: inadequate control and supervision (53.8%), increased need for funding (23.1%), lack of transparency and openness (53.8%), vulnerability and citizens’ moral hazards (38.5%), and aggravation of social problems and mistrust in authorities (61.5%). The analysis of these factors made it possible to provide recommendations to enhance the control and prevention of corruption offences in Ukraine and Lithuania. These measures include strengthening the independence of anticorruption bodies, increasing the transparency of government activities, disseminating anticorruption education, promoting international cooperation in combating corruption, and strengthening public control.

Background: The rapid digitalisation of copyrighted materials and the creation of new digital products pose significant challenges to copyright law in the era of globalisation. Digitisation has revolutionised access to information by converting it into a digital format, thus making it easier for anyone who surfs the internet to reproduce and share data. However, new technologies have also resulted in illegal activities such as online copyright infringement. That being the case, the development of digital technologies requires new relevant approaches and provisions from the national copyright law of Kazakhstan to handle copyright infringement on the internet. It could be argued that the current legislation cannot handle legal issues related to copyright, especially the responsibility of internet service providers (ISPs) for the violation of the copyright. This article aims to identify shortcomings in the legal regulation of ISPs in the Republic of Kazakhstan and to offer recommendations for improving legislation in this area. The novelty of the paper lies in Kazakhstan’s legislation, lacking regulation on the legal status of ISPs and their role in protecting copyright on the internet. By comparing Kazakh legislative developments with practices in the US, UK, and Ukraine, the paper provides insights into potential reforms for better handling digital copyright infringement. Methods: This paper applies several research methods, including systemic, comparative legal, and historical legal analysis. The primary focus is on examining the legislation and case law of the US, UK and Ukraine regarding copyright issues to enhance Kazakhstan’s existing legislative framework. Results and conclusions: This article argues that national acts of Kazakhstan on copyright were obsolete before the advancement of digital technologies and therefore, need to be updated to keep pace with modern technologies.