ABSTRACT This study develops and validates a multidimensional benchmarking instrument to evaluate the pedagogical quality of sNOOCs (social massive open online courses), integrating dimensions related to pedagogical design, usability, artificial intelligence (AI) and the metaverse. Through an instrumental validation study with a sequential-explanatory mixed methodology design. Using a sequential explanatory mixed-methods approach, a 24-item questionnaire was designed and administered in a peer assessment conducted by 135 postgraduate students at UNED (Spanish University of Distance Education), generating 937 assessments. The psychometric results confirm the excellent reliability of the instrument (Cronbach’s α = 0.97) and its structural validity, with a factor analysis explaining 77.6% of the variance. The findings reveal that pedagogical design is the highest-rated dimension, followed by usability and the quality of AI, showing a strong correlation among them. By contrast, the integration of the metaverse emerges as the main challenge, receiving the lowest rating and showing the greatest dispersion, indicating a lack of effective pedagogical alignment. The research validates peer assessment as a robust methodological strategy and offers a practical tool for continuous improvement of instructional design in advanced digital educational settings, while underlining the need for intentional pedagogical integration of emerging technologies.

ABSTRACT Online teaching in emergency situations can be challenging, potentially undermining instructors’ motivation and increasing their stress. In such contexts, instructors’ teaching knowledge may buffer these negative experiences. Guided by the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework, this study examined the roles of different technology-related knowledge – technological knowledge (TK), technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK), and technological content knowledge (TCK) – in instructors’ motivation (perceived task effort cost and emotional cost) and technostress (stress from using technology) during COVID-19 emergency online teaching. Results showed that TK was associated only with emotional cost and technostress, while TPK and TCK were related to all teaching outcomes. Further, hierarchical regression analyses revealed that TCK uniquely predicted all outcomes beyond TK and TPK, highlighting the importance of integrating technology into discipline-specific teaching practices. These findings emphasize the need to unpack TPACK’s components and suggest that professional development should move beyond generic tech training toward content- and pedagogy-integrated approaches.

ABSTRACT The COVID-19 pandemic exposed significant gaps in teacher preparation for online instruction, highlighting the persistent disconnect between the growth of K-12 digital learning and inadequate teacher education programs. Despite over fifteen years of research indicating this deficiency, few teacher preparation programs offer coursework or field experiences in online teaching. This study presents findings from the seventh cycle of an ongoing action research project examining a graduate instructional technology course to improve the preparation of teachers to teach online. Using constant comparative analysis, researchers analyzed blog posts, discussions, and assignments to explore how in-service teachers view K-12 online education and how these perspectives influence curriculum development. The study examines these findings through the lens of Hybrid-Flexible (HyFlex) instructional design, which allows students to choose their participation mode while maintaining equivalent learning opportunities. While HyFlex may not be directly applicable to K-12 settings due to logistical constraints, its principles of mode neutrality could address time constraints in teacher preparation programs.The research suggests incorporating HyFlex concepts into teacher education through comparative lesson development across multiple modalities, micro field experiences in virtual schools, and preparing educators for emergency remote teaching situations rather than creating separate online-specific coursework.

ABSTRACT The aim of the current study was to determine if there were significant differences between achievement of learning objectives for participants taking resident safety and environmental courses compared to online courses. Students of safety, occupational health, and environmental courses completed end-of-course surveys for 568 convenings from the years 2016–2024 and rated learning on a five-point Likert scale. There was no significant difference between the resident and online modality for five of the seven courses. Students reported a Likert score over four (agree “I now have the skills and knowledge to … ”) in nearly all cases, regardless of modality. The present investigation provides evidence that online education may be as effective as resident courses for occupational health, environmental protection, and safety training. These findings can be used to ensure successful and sustained integration of synchronous online occupational health, environmental protection, and safety training.

ABSTRACT Test anxiety is a well-documented factor that negatively influencing academic performance, yet its impact in virtual school environments remains underexplored. This quantitative study of 1,788 virtual school students in grades 6–8 across 16 schools investigated the relationship between test anxiety and standardized test performance, comparing outcomes across testing contexts – home-based versus facility-based. Quantitative results revealed higher levels of anxiety, particularly cognitive interference and physiological indicators, in facility-based testing environments. These findings align with prior research on virtual schools, which have consistently reported lower student achievement compared to in-person schools. Results underscore the importance of addressing test anxiety to support equitable educational outcomes in virtual schools.

ABSTRACT A study conducted from September to October 2022 with 1,900 medical students from a university in Guangzhou, China, explored the factors influencing self-efficacy in online learning. The study utilized the Online Learning Self-Efficacy Questionnaire, the Depression-Anxiety-Stress Scale (DASS-21), and a self-administered questionnaire assessing sociodemographic characteristics and self-evaluation of learning effectiveness. Statistical analyses using SPSS 25.0 and AMOS 25.0, including univariate and multi-factor analyses, were performed to examine the data. The results indicated that the average online learning self-efficacy score among the students was (56.83±7.97). Structural equation modeling revealed that male students (p < 0.005), those with higher per capita monthly household income (p < 0.001), and students who assessed their online learning effectiveness positively (p < 0.001) exhibited significantly higher self-efficacy. In contrast, students experiencing higher levels of depression (p < 0.001), anxiety (p < 0.001), and stress (p < 0.001) had significantly lower self-efficacy for online learning. The study concluded that gender, per capita family income, self-assessment of learning effectiveness, and mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety, and stress are key factors influencing medical students’ self-efficacy in online learning. Based on these findings, it is recommended that university teachers focus on improving online teaching management, provide additional support for financially disadvantaged students, and balance online and offline learning. Encouraging collaboration, fostering motivation, and introducing strategies like flipped classrooms and increased online interaction are crucial for enhancing students’ self-efficacy and improving academic outcomes. Addressing students’ negative emotions through these methods can maximize online learning effectiveness for medical students.

ABSTRACT As universities continue to expand their offering of online courses, it is imperative for researchers to identify pedagogy that supports student learning. At the same time, the application of artificial intelligence as a tool to support student learning is growing. For example, one recent trend in learning management systems is the integration of intelligent agents, which allow instructors to program automatic, targeted e-mails to students based on particular release conditions (i.e., a targeted congratulations e-mail when a student earns an A). Despite the growing popularity of intelligent agents and their potential to support students in asynchronous online courses, researchers have not yet investigated their influence on students. Using a quasi-experimental design, this study sought to examine the impact of intelligent agents on students’ academic engagement, sense of belonging, and academic performance. Two large (i.e., 150 students) asynchronous online courses were randomly assigned to either the intervention (intelligent agent messages; n = 113) or control (whole class announcements; n = 122). To compare the two groups, we administered a survey composed of Likert-scale and short-answer questions measuring academic engagement and sense of belonging at the beginning and end of the semester. Analyses revealed no significant differences between the groups’ engagement, belonging, or academic performance; however, all students reported a significant decrease in behavioral and emotional engagement across the semester. Qualitative analyses suggested that the intervention and control groups did seem to describe the sense of belonging differently, which may indicate that the use of intelligent agents influenced students’ perceptions of belonging.

ABSTRACT This paper critically examines the andragogical effectiveness of discussion boards within an MBA program, focusing on whether alternative methods could yield superior educational outcomes. Traditional online discussion boards, despite being a mainstay in asynchronous distance education, have come under scrutiny for their potential limitations in facilitating deep, meaningful student interactions. Through a quasi-experimental study involving MBA students, this research explores the implementation of a reflective journaling approach, incorporating elements like distributed practice and recall activities as an alternative to conventional discussion boards. The study employs Michael G. Moore’s Theory of Transactional Distance as a theoretical framework to assess learning outcomes. Initial results from the innovative andragogical approach suggest a moderate effect size, indicating a potential improvement in learning outcomes compared to traditional discussion board use, although statistical significance was not reached. The findings prompt a reevaluation of interaction techniques in online education, suggesting that integrating reflective practices could enhance the quality of student learning and engagement.