Color vision deficiencies, especially red-green types such as deuteranomaly and protanopia, affect many individuals, particularly men, and pose challenges in fields that rely on color-coded visualizations. In biomedical journals, figures such as heatmaps and fluorescence images often use red-green color contrasts that are inaccessible to readers with color vision deficiencies, leading to misinterpretation and reduced clarity. Studies show that a large proportion of scientific figures remain problematic, underscoring the need for inclusive design. This review outlines strategies to improve figure accessibility, including avoiding red-green combinations, adopting perceptually uniform palettes, ensuring luminance contrast, and supplementing colors with patterns or annotations. Providing alternative text and testing figures with colorblindness simulators further enhances usability. Incorporating these practices promotes equitable access to scientific knowledge and strengthens the clarity and impact of published research in biomedical journals and textbooks.

The widespread use of electronic cigarettes is due to the variety of appealing flavor additives marketed to consumers. Although perceived as a less harmful alternative to traditional smoking, emerging evidence suggests that inhaled e-cigarettes aerosol poses multiple risks on oral health. Oral fibroblasts which maintain the extracellular matrix and support wound repair, may be vulnerable to chemical injury. While the toxic effects of base e-liquid components such as nicotine have been investigated, limited research has addressed how added flavoring chemicals influence oral fibroblast survival and stress responses. A comprehensive search was conducted across PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar to identify peer-reviewed studies evaluating the biological impact of flavored e-cigarette exposure on human oral fibroblasts. Collective findings revealed consistent mechanistic trends: flavoring chemicals, especially aromatic aldehydes such as cinnamaldehyde and vanillin, induced adverse cellular responses, increasing intracellular reactive oxygen species, and triggering oxidative modifications. These oxidative injuries such as protein carbonylation promote pro-inflammatory responses in oral fibroblasts, specifically heightened secretion of cytokine interleukin-8 and lipid mediator prostaglandin E2, which contribute to tissue breakdown. Increased apoptosis, impaired cell survival, and senescence were reported following longer exposure durations. In contrast, menthol and fruit flavors produced moderate responses, while unflavored aerosols showed little toxicity. These results emphasize that flavored e-cigarette products may accelerate oral tissue deterioration, undermining fibroblast health, and limiting the capacity for tissue repair. As flavored aerosol use remains prevalent among the youth, understanding its toxicity is crucial to advancing public health policies and the regulation of vaping products.

Michelangelo's Moses (1513-1515), created for the tomb of Pope Julius II, is celebrated for its expressive intensity and anatomical precision. While psychoanalytic and neuroaesthetic studies-from Freud's classic interpretation to contemporary imaging research-have highlighted its psychological power, less attention has been given to the anatomical structures that embody such restraint and authority. This essay focuses on the brachioradialis muscle in the right forearm of Moses, examining its role as both a functional anatomical detail and a sculptural symbol of controlled energy. Anatomically, the brachioradialis originates on the lateral supracondylar ridge of the humerus and inserts on the distal radius. Though located in the extensor compartment and innervated by the radial nerve, it primarily functions as an elbow flexor, especially in semi-pronation. Michelangelo's rendering captures this paradoxical muscle in a state of isometric contraction: the elbow flexed to 70-80 degrees, the forearm semi-pronated, and the hand gripping the tablets. The resulting bulge conveys readiness to act yet deliberate restraint, a visual translation of terribilità. Comparative analysis with Pollaiuolo, Leonardo, and Verrocchio reveals Michelangelo's unique synthesis of anatomical accuracy, biomechanical plausibility, and expressive intent. Psychoanalytic interpretations align with this physiological truth: the tension in the forearm symbolizes suppressed anger and moral discipline. From a modern perspective, the sculpture offers lessons for anatomical pedagogy and surgical practice, illustrating how structural knowledge and dynamic function converge in expressive form. The brachioradialis of Moses thus exemplifies the Renaissance integration of dissection-based anatomy and artistic imagination, sustaining its relevance across both art and medicine.

The fundiform ligament and penile suspensory ligament (PSL) are essential for maintaining prepubic curvature and stabilizing erections. PSL dissection is a key step in penile lengthening surgery for micropenis; however, the precise origin and insertion of the fundiform ligament, as well as the insertion of the PSL, remain subjects to debate. In this study, 34 embalmed male cadavers without pathology or prior pelvic or perineal surgery were dissected layer by layer from the lower abdominal wall to the penile base. The fundiform and PSL were identified, and their origin, insertion, morphology, length, and vascular associations were documented. Four distinct shapes of the fundiform ligament were identified: double, triangular, Y-shaped, and irregular type, with the double type being most common. The majority originated from the linea alba, while some arose from Scarpa's fascia or both, inserting distally into the superficial penile fascia. The external pudendal artery was observed near its insertion in 56% of cases. The PSL consistently exhibited a triangular configuration, with an average depth of 27.4±5.7 mm along the pubic symphysis. The angle between the pubic margin and penile shaft margin measured 58.6°±9.7°. The deep dorsal vein of the penis was identified at the deep margin of the PSL in 53% of specimens. These findings provide detailed anatomical insights into the penile suspensory apparatus, highlighting structural variations, origins, and relationships with adjacent vascular structures. Further surgical validation is required to establish their clinical implications in penile lengthening procedures.

Rodents have been studied widely to evaluate the cellular and molecular mechanism of tooth development, although significant differences exist between them that impact how the researchers design their experiment. The mandibular first molar M1 is the most studied tooth in both species and provides a model for crown morphogenesis, root initiation, periodontal ligament organization, and the tooth eruption. In mice the M1 development is rapid, the crown complete at birth and the tooth eruption postnatal P20-21, while in rats the tooth development events are delayed, with larger tooth germs and tooth eruption at P17. However, rats provide advantages for microinjection, histology and biochemical assays due to their larger molar compared to mice. In comparison, mice provide an excellent model for genetic related studies. However, systematic side-by-side analysis is limited, leaving a gap in understanding how timing, genetic signaling, and eruption are related among species. This review focuses on current knowledge of rat-mouse M1 development and compares the two models to help the researcher to determine model selection, and experimental design, particularly when translating the finding to human development or pathology.

Bilateral hypoplastic facial arteries terminating as submental arteries were identified on computed tomography angiography, accompanied by rare compensatory vascular patterns. The right maxillary artery exhibited a triangular fenestration between the maxillary tuberosity and inferior orbital fissure, from which an aberrant buccal artery arose and descended to supply the inferior lip. The left side demonstrated a common buccoalveolar trunk bifurcating into the inferior alveolar artery and an aberrant buccal artery with a previously unreported transmandibular trajectory, entering at the lingula and exiting through a retromolar foramen before continuing tortuously to vascularize the cheek and lower lip. These anatomical variants present significant surgical hazards during regional anesthesia procedures targeting the maxillary tuberosity, pterygomandibular space, and mandibular lingula, as well as during facial reconstructive surgery. Comprehensive preoperative angiographic evaluation is essential when facial artery hypoplasia is encountered to identify compensatory networks and prevent inadvertent vascular injury.

Knowledge regarding arterial variations of the abdominal organs is of great importance in visceral surgery and interventional radiology. Here, we describe the combination of an aberrant common hepatic artery from the superior mesenteric artery, an aberrant right hepatic artery from the superior mesenteric artery, and an aberrant left hepatic artery arising from the left gastric artery in a female body donor. The aberrant common hepatic artery provided a middle hepatic artery only. Additionally, we reported a circumaortic variation of the left renal vein. To the best of our knowledge, this specific combination of hepatic artery variations has not been described yet. It is important that clinicians are aware not only of isolated variations but also of their various combinations.

The growing use of injectable cosmetic fillers has been accompanied by an increase in reports of acute vision loss, typically caused by inadvertent intravascular injection and subsequent embolization of the ophthalmic artery, resulting in ocular ischemia. Effective management of this complication remains challenging, as clear clinical guidelines for retrobulbar hyaluronidase injection are lacking. This ultrasound-based observational anatomical guideline provides practical recommendations for retrobulbar administration of hyaluronidase. Real-time ultrasonography allows for direct visualisation of orbital anatomy, enabling the injector to identify the optic nerve sheath complex and surrounding vascular structures. The central retinal artery’s entry point into the optic canal is a key anatomical landmark for directing treatment. Based on ultrasound observations, the inferolateral quadrant of the orbit is identified as the safest and most accessible entry site, reducing the risk of damage to extraocular muscles, cranial nerves, and major vessels. The use of ultrasonography enhances both precision and safety, supporting timely and effective management of filler-related ocular complications. Ultrasound observation further confirms that the inferolateral orbital approach offers the most reliable and safe access for retrobulbar hyaluronidase injection. The superior orbital rim and close proximity of the globe restrict needle trajectory from above, increasing the risk of ocular injury. In contrast, the inferior approach provides a wider anatomical corridor, reduces the likelihood of direct contact with the eyeball, and allows safer navigation around critical neurovascular structures. Incorporating real-time ultrasound enhances precision, making the inferior approach the preferred route for managing filler-related ocular complications.

Tamoxifen (TAM) is one of the most used drugs in the prevention and treatment of breast cancer. A set of common side effects was recorded associating its prolonged clinical use that ranges 3–10 years. This study aimed to investigate TAM-induced parietal cells (PCs) injury in rats and the possible protective effect of rhubarb (Rh) water extract (WE). Twenty-four adult female rats were distributed as: control group, TAM-group (3 mg/kg/day TAM for 4-weeks) and TAM+Rh-group (combined 3 mg/kg/day TAM and 20 mg/kg Rh-WE for 4-weeks). Blood sample before euthanizing rats was tested for vitamin-B12. PCs in stomach fundus were examined using histological and transmission electron microscopic studies, besides immunohistochemistry for Caspase-3, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and hydrogen potassium (H+/K+)-ATPase. Gastric homogenates were inspected for malondialdehyde (MDA) by ELISA. TAM intake induced structural and ultrastructural alteration in rat PCs including ballooning degeneration, apoptosis, decreased canaliculi, increased tubulovesicular system and irregular-shaped mitochondria. A significant increase of Caspase-3 immunostaining and MDA expression in gastric tissue was associated with a significant decrease of PCNA and H+/K+-ATPase-immunostaining and in serum vitamin-B12 as compared to the control group. Combined oral intake of TAM and Rh-WE revealed a significant reversal of the previous findings. Conclusion: Prolonged use of oral TAM substantially affected the structure and function of gastric PCs which can be ameliorated by Rh-WE.

The external granular layer (EGL) is a transient yet crucial layer for the formation of cerebellar cortex. Genetic mechanisms, including the sonic hedgehog (SHH) pathway is key to the proliferation of granule cell progenitors (GCPs), and disruptions in this process can lead to cerebellar disorders like medulloblastoma and Dandy–Walker malformation (DWM). The review consolidates findings from studies on human cerebellar development, primarily focusing on neurogenesis, the role of genetic pathways in EGL regulation, and its involvement in congenital disorders. In total 42 articles were comprehensively reviewed and the research gaps in current research on human foetal cerebellum development was highlighted. The key findings from various sections of the review are summarized as follows. In terms of gestational development, the timeline for the appearance and regression of the EGL in humans remains imprecise. Regarding morphometry, the EGL thickness shows a marked increase between 16 and 28 gestational weeks, reaching an average peak of approximately 50.05 µm around 24th to 28th weeks, and then declines during the late third trimester. In the context of gene expression, SHH signalling plays a critical role in driving the proliferation of GCPs within the EGL. When considering congenital disorders, disruptions in EGL development are associated with conditions such as medulloblastomas, DWM, and pilocytic astrocytoma. The review highlights major research gaps and underscores the need for further human-specific studies to enhance understanding and guide therapies for cerebellar disorders.