Supergenes control alternative social organization in at least six independent ant lineages, raising novel questions about the genetic basis of the behavioural processes that lead to polygynous (multiple-queen) colonies. Here, we investigated whether a social supergene influences worker behaviour, queen behaviour and colony growth in the Alpine silver ant, Formica selysi . This species exhibits both monogynous (single-queen) and polygynous colonies, with a large, inverted supergene haplotype ( P ) exclusively present in individuals from polygynous colonies. We crossed queens originating from monogynous colonies ( MM supergene genotype) with males originating either from monogynous colonies ( M haplotype) or polygynous colonies ( P haplotype). We then allowed queens to establish incipient, single-queen colonies in the laboratory. After 1 year, single MM queens mated to P males had more worker offspring than single MM queens mated to M males, consistent with a heterozygote advantage. We then tested whether the workers would accept non-nestmate queens introduced into their colony. Contrary to our expectations, we found no evidence that the P haplotype made workers more likely to accept additional queens. Host workers consistently attacked and rejected foreign queens, irrespective of worker supergene genotype. Furthermore, MM and MP workers had similar cuticular lipid profiles. However, in contrast to workers, queens of polygynous origin (carrying the P haplotype) behaved differently from queens of monogynous origin. When introduced into a foreign host colony, queens of polygynous origin were more agitated, performed fewer appeasement behaviours and received more acts of aggression from workers than queens of monogynous origin. In colony-founding assays, queens originating from polygynous colonies were more likely to peacefully associate in the same nest. These findings suggest that in a socially polymorphic Formica species, the behaviour of queens plays a more important role than previously recognized in determining colony social structure, while the role of workers is context dependent. • We tested how a supergene controlling colony queen number impacts ant behaviour. • Workers rejected non-nestmate queens, irrespective of worker supergene genotype. • Queens from polygynous colonies associated more during colony founding. • Our findings indicate that queen behaviour influences colony social structure. • The impact of the social supergene is context dependent.

Animals in rapidly changing environments, such as cities, should optimize information gathering to learn about and efficiently forage in these heterogeneous environments. Urban life can require animals to innovate to access new resources, and deciding when to problem-solve and when to rely on previous knowledge is therefore important for some urban species. We took an optimal foraging theory approach to study innovation in a successful urban mammal. We presented captive raccoons, Procyon lotor , with a multiaccess puzzle box with three possible solutions at one of three difficulty levels (Easy, Medium, Hard). Raccoons progressed through the difficulty levels as they successfully solved the solution types at each easier level. In contrast to previous multiaccess puzzle box studies, we allowed the raccoons to solve as many solutions as they preferred during their trials, and we kept all solutions available across all trials at each difficulty level. Using this multiaccess puzzle box paradigm, we found that raccoons optimized information gain and energy gain: they explored and innovated more when presented with easier problems and exploited known solutions more when presented with difficult problems. This ability to flexibly problem-solve and optimize information foraging may be beneficial for this flourishing urban mammal. • Innovative problem solving can be beneficial, especially for some urban species. • Optimal foraging theory can be used to predict exploration–exploitation trade-offs. • We found evidence for exploration–exploitation trade-offs in problem solving. • Raccoons foraged for information on a multi-access puzzle box. • This information foraging followed optimal foraging theory.

The impact of feral cats on Australian wildlife contributes to species decline across the country. Reptiles play a significant role in feral cat diet, especially in the arid zone where reptile diversity and density are high. In this study, predator–prey interactions between feral cats and two arid-zone gecko species, the common knob-tail gecko, Nephrurus levis , and the beaded gecko, Lucasium damaeum , were investigated. Typically, N. levis responds to threats by bluffing, whereas L. damaeum flees. We hypothesized that these behavioural differences may affect their likelihood of avoiding predation. Using Perspex reptile enclosures in a large outdoor cat pen, the behaviour of gecko and feral cat was observed to assess how cats and geckos responded during and after interactions. Cats visited the Perspex enclosures with N. levis 11 times more than the control enclosures, and they had on average 15 s longer interactions. Reptile behaviour was compared before, during and after cat interactions. N. levis spent significantly more time in a stationary head-down hiding response during and after cat interactions, whereas L. damaeum showed no behavioural change. The longer length of interactions between cats and N. levis indicates that N. levis may be more susceptible to cat predation than L. damaeum despite their recognition of cats as a threat. Reptile body size showed no effect on the number of interactions with cats and interaction length, which indicates that other factors such as prey preference or posture may have been responsible for the increased interest towards N. levis . Bluffing behaviour was not observed possibly because of the enclosure, which prevents cats from approaching closer than 30 cm to geckos. However, in the wild, this behaviour could reduce predation impacts. Further research on reptile responses to feral predators is necessary to understand the interspecific variation in susceptibility of reptiles to cat predation. • Two arid geckos exhibited poor antipredator response to cats. • Gecko size had no influence on cat interactions. • Lucasium damaeum did not change behaviour in response to cats. • Cryptic predatory response for Nephrurus levis did not prevent detection by cats.