ABSTRACT The following paper was inspired by editorial work on some of early precritical writings for the new Academy Edition of Immanuel Kant which can be characterized as more or (more often) less coherent compositions of traditional rational cosmology and physical cosmology of his time, the further transformation of which gave rise to some investigations how basic concepts changed in the period from around 1746–1768. The aim of the paper is twofold: Firstly – and for the first time, as far as I can see – to give a concise account of the most important conceptual developments of Kant’s precretical cosmology, especially of his precitical theory of matter. Secondly, to show how innovations in his later pre-critical writings in particular influenced the cosmology of his critical phase, mainly presented in the Critique of Pure Reason and the Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science. Although the paper in no way plays down the philosophical significance of Kant’s transcendental turn, it intends to show the extent to which argumentative patterns of the precritical period have found their way into his critical philosophy and others have become obsolete as a result of this turn.

ABSTRACT In 1786 Georg Forster published a widely read critique of Immanuel Kant’s theory of race. Since then, the dispute between Forster and Kant on the unity of mankind has been widely discussed in light of both Forster’s essay and Kant’s decision to write a lengthy response to Forster in 1788. In this discussion I widen the frame for considering the two positions by focusing on Kant’s lectures on Physical Geography. In these notes Kant emerges as an ethnographer asking many of the same questions posed by Forster himself, a man who had become famous since his time spent onboard James Cook’s second voyage to the South Pacific (1772–1775). Placing Kant’s ethnography in closer conversation with Forster reveals the many similarities (and some well-known differences) between the two. By including some of Forster’s other writings from the 1780s in an assessment of their debate, moreover, a much fuller picture can be had regarding natural historical investigations into the unity and difference of mankind at the time.

ABSTRACT This essay treats the idea of useful knowledge as a historical concept, attempting to apprehend its evolutionary process from a long-term perspective. Focusing on two leaders, early modern Britain and the post-World War II United States, the essay explores some undercurrents left unexplored in the existing literature and in particular the changing purpose and motive of scientific research. Firstly, it deals with the emergent idea of useful knowledge in a broad context and tracks down how early modern Britons attempted to promote mechanical arts into sciences, arguing that by the late eighteenth century that idea was bifurcated into abstract and practical science. Secondly, the essay deals with how the post-World War II US developed the bifurcated idea into basic and applied research, focusing on university scientists, who endeavoured to adapt themselves with the rise of applied research and of academic entrepreneurship during the first four post-war decades; they were especially concerned about the motive of personal profit and their social standing as well. The essay concludes that the conventional orders of knowledge have been inverted in the contemporary US, a development closely interwoven with capitalism, thus dissenting from the prevailing interpretation that underlines continuities rather than changes.

ABSTRACT In the 1820s, Stockholm Observatory undertook a significant upgrade of its instruments. The new acquisitions included a meridian circle, crafted by Traugott Ertel in Munich, which – after extensive delays – was finally installed at the observatory in 1834. Despite its advanced capabilities, the instrument saw limited use during its first forty years, as observatory directors were largely occupied with geodetic projects for the Crown. The meridian circle only reached its full scientific potential when Hugo Gyldén became the Academy Astronomer in 1871, marking the end of the Observatory’s geodetic era. In addition to observations for a major zone project, from 1879 the instrument became the engine of the Swedish standard time system. Throughout the nineteenth century it also had an important role as the zero meridian for the military’s geodetic pursuits. The instrument remained in use until the Observatory relocated to Saltsjöbaden in 1931. This paper explores the various roles played by the Ertel meridian circle during its century-long history, with a focus on the strategies employed by astronomers to preserve the ageing instrument’s relevance.

ABSTRACT Precision was not a quality expected from ordinary watches in the eighteenth century, which required specific maintenance to function correctly. The precautions to be taken to ensure the accuracy of pocket chronometers, whose going would influence navigation or the results of scientific activities, were even more vital. However, the remarkable attention that horological studies have devoted to the origins of chronometry has neglected these aspects. It has erroneously assumed that the success of chronometers was guaranteed by their innovative impact and technological advancement. To illustrate the importance to examine the birth of chronometry from the point of view of manipulating technology and the user experience, my paper will discuss the case of the small series of pocket chronometers manufactured between 1782 and 1794 by the London workshop of the Swiss watchmaker Josiah Emery. The article shows that not all the users possessed the necessary technical knowledge nor training to handle and employ chronometers appropriately and that the instructions given by the artisan to his clients played a fundamental role.