ABSTRACT This study examines the cooling performance of lithium‐ion (Li‐ion) batteries in electric vehicles, emphasizing the importance of maintaining temperatures below 35°C to ensure efficiency and safety. A simulation‐based approach is used to study battery pack cooling using a liquid coolant (deionized water) within a cold plate system, focusing on a 16‐cell battery pack connected in series‐parallel. A novel stereoscopic‐serpentine cold plate design is implemented. The thermal response of the battery pack is evaluated under constant and worldwide harmonized light vehicles test cycle (WLTC Class 3 drive) discharge rates. The inlet temperature and inlet flow velocities of the liquid coolant are varied. The simulation results for the stereoscopic‐serpentine cold plate design are compared with those for the traditional serpentine bottom cold plate design. The new design improved coolant flow and effectively reduced temperature differences in the battery pack. The findings highlight that lowering the coolant temperature is significantly more effective for reducing the battery temperature than increasing the coolant flow speed, with a 1% decrease in coolant temperature leading to a 7.1% reduction in the maximum battery temperature, compared with a mere 0.21% reduction from a 1% increase in coolant flow speed.

ABSTRACT The rapid expansion of electrified energy systems has transformed batteries from passive storage components into critical infrastructure assets. This shift has intensified persistent challenges related to degradation, safety and lifecycle uncertainty. A growing body of literature examines the use of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) in battery modelling and management. However, most extant studies emphasise individual algorithms or isolated prediction tasks. The reliable deployment of intelligence on operational battery system receives limited attention. This perspective addresses this limitation by examining intelligent battery systems from a system‐level standpoint. Intelligence is approached as an outcome of coordinated integration across sensing, learning, optimisation and management functions, rather than as an isolated algorithmic feature. Recent advances in data acquisition, performance optimisation, lifecycle modelling and predictive management are examined within a unified battery management architecture. Attention is given to practical deployment constraints, including sensing fidelity, data representativeness, interpretability, scalability and compatibility with embedded control systems. Evidence from fast charging studies and grid‐scale deployments highlights both the potential of AI‐driven approaches and the structural barriers that restrict translation from laboratory settings to real‐world operation. The analysis highlights the role of early and diverse sensing, physics‐informed learning, uncertainty‐aware decision processes and deployment‐oriented model design in shaping dependable system‐level intelligence. The paper concludes by identifying research priorities that align algorithmic development with safety, sustainability and operational feasibility, positioning intelligent battery systems as adaptive assets within future energy infrastructures.

ABSTRACT Carbon xerogels with a pore size of approximately 500 nm, synthesized through an energy‐efficient microwave‐assisted process and subsequently thermally treated at temperatures ranging from 1000°C to 2800°C, are investigated as anodes in sodium‐ion batteries using a glyme‐based electrolyte. The present study focuses on determining the optimal balance between the textural and structural properties of the resulting materials to enhance their electrochemical performance. Particular attention is paid to the material interlayer spacing and porosity, aiming to achieve a suitable compromise between ordered and disordered carbon structures. This balance is crucial to maximize the electrochemical storage of the Na + ions in the materials via surface adsorption (defects, pores), insertion/intercalation/co‐intercalation into the aromatic layers of graphitic domains, and/or nanopore filling mechanisms. Among the carbon xerogels studied, CX500‐1800 which features very low surface area, an almost negligible micropore volume, and an interlayer spacing of approximately 0.37 nm emerged as the most suitable candidate for this application. This material delivers a capacity of 233 mAh g⁻¹ after 200 cycles at 37.2 mA g⁻¹ with a coulombic efficiency of 94%. The enhanced performance of this carbon material suggests a synergistic effect of its optimized textural and structural properties. Specifically, the absence of microporosity minimizes irreversible sodium trapping, while the moderate increase in the structural order—achieved through thermal treatment at 1800°C—facilitates efficient Na⁺ ion transport and storage mainly through intercalation into the graphitic domains.

ABSTRACT Aqueous zinc‐ion batteries (AZIBs) have emerged as a highly promising energy storage technology, featuring high energy density, low cost, and excellent safety. However, insufficient cycling stability induced by side reactions and dendrite growth on the anode severely hinders their practical applications. Herein, a vacancy‐rich rare earth oxide/carbon composite anode material is synthesized. The porous structure of the conductive carbon framework serves to disperse ion flux and promote uniform Zn deposition, while the unique hydrophobicity of the rare earth oxide effectively suppresses the hydrogen evolution reaction. Furthermore, La doping not only introduces defects such as vacancies that act as active sites for Zn deposition to induce uniform nucleation and growth, but also generates oxygen vacancies that reduce the charge transfer resistance at the electrode‐electrolyte interface, enhance the diffusion coefficient of the electrode, and accelerate ion migration within the electrode. Benefiting from these distinctive advantages, the LC‐3|Zn battery exhibits a low voltage hysteresis of 61.2 mV and a low nucleation overpotential of 27.1 mV. The battery designed based on this anode achieves exceptional long cycle stability, maintaining 100% capacity retention after 5500 cycles.

ABSTRACT This work investigates the volatile fraction released from black mass (BM) obtained from spent lithium‐ion batteries subjected to microwave (MW) thermal treatment. MW processing is emerging as an alternative to conventional pyrometallurgy for improving energy efficiency and recovery of critical metals such as lithium, yet the associated emission profile remains poorly characterized. However, the studies of the emissions associated with these treatments are quite limited. Here, a multilevel full factorial Design of Experiments is applied for the first time to evaluate the influence of MW power, exposure time, and BM mass on heating dynamics and lithium extraction efficiency. Volatile organic compounds generated during MW processing are identified by headspace solid‐phase microextraction coupled to gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (HS‐SPME/GC‐MS), showing a complex mixture of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, carbonate esters, and phosphorus‐ and fluorine‐containing species. Multinuclear NMR spectroscopy (¹H, ⁷Li, ¹⁹F, ³¹P) confirms the presence of electrolyte‐derived residues such as Li⁺, PF₆ − , and phosphate esters. The combined analytical approach clarifies degradation pathways during MW heating and highlights the need to monitor and mitigate the formation of potentially hazardous volatile species in future MW‐assisted recycling processes. Statistical models reveal that the time to reach 600°C and the maximum temperature depend primarily on power and exposure time, while Li recovery is governed by BM mass and its interaction with power.

ABSTRACT The transition from liquid to solid electrolytes is driven by the need for enhanced safety and higher energy density in advanced batteries. Solid‐state electrolytes (SSEs) eliminate flammability and leakage risks but suffer from low ionic conductivity at ambient conditions due to lattice constraints and high migration barriers. Breakthroughs in SSEs materials such as Li 10 GeP 2 S 12 (LGPS), Li 7 La 3 Zr 2 O 12 (LLZO), and Argyrodite‐type Li 6 PS 5 Cl reveal a unique phenomenon: lithium ions exhibit “floating” behavior within a stable anionic framework, enabling quasi‐fluid migration through interconnected channels. This work explores the physicochemical nature of “floating Li,” emphasizing weak interactions, multi‐path coupling, and framework flexibility as key factors reducing migration barriers. We further propose an electronic‐density‐based approach using the interaction region indicator (IRI) to extract characteristic descriptors for high‐conductivity SSEs. Comparative analysis of IRI maps across different electrolytes demonstrates distinct patterns associated with low‐electron‐density migration channels. These insights establish a paradigm shift from single‐path models to networked migration behavior and suggest that integrating chemical bonding theory, lattice dynamics, and data‐driven screening can accelerate the rational design of next‐generation solid electrolytes.

ABSTRACT This study explores the development of calcium‐ion batteries (CIBs) by focusing on the design of a novel electrolyte to overcome key challenges, such as poor calcium plating/stripping. Hydrated vanadium pentoxide (H‐V₂O₅) served as the cathode, and graphite acted as the anode. Tricalcium dicitrate tetrahydrate (Ca‐citrate) salt was used for the first time in an ethylene carbonate/propylene carbonate (EC/PC) solvent system. Ca‐citrate showed marked improvement in ionic conductivity (up to 2.6 × 10 −1 S/cm) and electrochemical stability (~6 V) relative to traditional Ca‐nitrate (2.5 V) and also displayed better capacity retention. To solve the solubility limitations of Ca‐citrate in EC/PC, highly diluted (0.001 M) solution of EC/PC and modified electrolytes with cosolvents like poly(ethylene glycol) 200 (PEG 200) and trifluoroacetic anhydride (TFA) were studied. PEG 200 increased solubility and stability through hydrogen bonding, while TFA increased ionic mobility but decreased electrochemical stability. The PEG‐modified electrolyte achieved a stability window of ~4 V with a charge/discharge capacity of ~198 mAh/g. Additionally, using ethylene glycol (EG) as an alternative solvent increased the electrochemically reversible, soluble, and capacitive Ca‐citrate (up to 708 mAh/g, 85 mA/g). EG‐based electrolyte showed high columbic efficiency (~99%–100%) and stable interfacial behavior.

ABSTRACT This study presents a detailed comparative study of lactone‐based electrolytes (γ‐valerolactone, GVL and γ‐butyrolactone, GBL) combined with lithium imide‐based salts, namely lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) and lithium bis(fluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiFSI). Propylene carbonate is employed as a reference electrolyte solvent. The physicochemical properties of these electrolyte systems are determined experimentally and further calculated using our developed computational model. Besides, in‐silico investigations are used to reveal valuable insights into the molecular interactions of the electrolyte components, such as self‐diffusion coefficients and radial distribution functions. Furthermore, the suitability of lactone‐based electrolytes for electrochemical applications is demonstrated by their promising rate capability and cycling stability over 200 cycles in graphite half‐cells, especially with 1 M LiTFSI and 2 wt% vinylene carbonate, together with their favorable performance on lithium iron phosphate. An excellent capacity retention achieved in a full‐cell configuration (> 80% after 200 cycles) further validates the potential of lactones as battery solvent alternatives, with GVL standing out due to its bio‐based origin.

ABSTRACTCapacity fading during cycling remains a significant challenge for silicon‐based anode materials in Li‐ion batteries. Amorphous, sub‐stoichiometric silicon carbide (a‐SiCx) nanoparticles have proven to be more stable than pure silicon, albeit with lower lithiation capacities. The incorporation of carbon during the nanoparticle synthesis is highly effective in the suppression of crystalline phases during both synthesis and cycling. In this study, a‐SiCx materials with varying carbon concentrations (up to 22 wt.%) were produced via gas‐phase synthesis in a hot‐wall reactor. The primary objective is to understand the mechanism of carbon incorporation into the silicon particles, and secondly its impact on material properties and battery performance. Based on extensive materials science investigations and NMR analyses, we have determined that carbon is incorporated together with hydrogen, which further promotes amorphization. Furthermore, cycling analysis shows a strongly increased stability with 85% retention after 200 cycles for materials with more than 10 wt.% carbon, probably mainly due to a reduced buildup of internal resistances and reduced volume expansion. Furthermore, crystalline Si‐Li‐phases cannot be formed in this material during lithiation enabling deep lithiations, and Coulombic efficiency is increased. These results suggest that a‐SiCx is a promising alternative to pure silicon as an anode material.

ABSTRACTThe increasing reliance on renewable energy sources, electric vehicles, and portable electronics has intensified the demand for advanced energy storage systems that are both efficient and sustainable. Among the critical components of these systems, electrode materials play a pivotal role in determining performance. In this context, bismuth vanadate (BVO) has emerged as a highly promising material, thanks to its distinctive structural and electrochemical properties. BVO offers immense potential across various energy storage technologies, including lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs), sodium‐ion batteries (SIBs), zinc‐ion batteries (ZIBs) and supercapacitors. Its unique characteristics, such as efficient ion intercalation and robust battery‐like behavior, position it as an ideal candidate for next‐generation devices. Recent advances in morphological optimization have further enhanced the specific capacitance and cycling stability of BVO‐based materials, paving the way for significant progress in energy storage technology. Furthermore, innovative approaches, such as leveraging BVO's photocatalytic capabilities in ZIBs, offer a cost‐effective and environmentally friendly route to energy storage. This review highlights the transformative potential of BVO as an electrode material, emphasizing its role in addressing the pressing need for energy storage technologies that support clean and renewable energy initiatives. Through detailed exploration, it underscores the adaptability and promise of BVO in shaping the future of sustainable energy solutions.