The purpose of this longitudinal study was twofold: (a) to investigate academic, behavioral, and emotional outcomes for adolescents who were followed longitudinally from middle through high school and (b) to determine if early assessment of achievement and behavior predicts academic and behavioral outcomes for adolescents who were identified as at risk for developing emotional and behavioral problems when they were in primary school. Teacher ratings and student self-reports suggested that the behavioral and emotional symptoms for this school-based sample of predominately minority adolescents (n = 212, 91% African American and/or Hispanic, 45% boys, 55% girls) decreased across time, although there was significant variability for individuals. The at-risk students in special education had significantly higher self-ratings of emotional problems than the other groups and viewed school more negatively. Assessment of reading and math achievement and teacher ratings of behavior in primary school predicted achievement and behavior through middle and high school for at-risk students. Results have implications for early identification, prevention/intervention programs, and transition planning for children and youth at risk for developing problem behaviors.

In 1991, the Peacock Hill Working Group provided the field of emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) a roadmap for improving the quality of services provided to students with EBD. The working group considered issues at every level of the educational system, from the classroom to federal policy. Although many strides have been made in the past 20 years regarding the education and treatment of students with EBD, the gap has persisted between empirically validated practices and the classroom routines of teachers serving students from this population. In the authors’ view, the field of EBD would benefit greatly from conceptual and empirical developments to improve the mechanisms required to bring science to the classroom. Using the theoretical underpinnings of implementation science, the authors describe a transactional model for integrating research, policy, and practice to close the research-to-practice gap. Recommendations for researchers, policy makers, and practitioners are provided.

A major goal of positive behavior support (PBS) is to produce broad-based, long-term improvements in adaptive behavior; however, the empirical base, at present, is mainly composed of relatively short-term studies carried out in circumscribed contexts. Therefore, a need exists for reliable data that can inform the field regarding the comprehensive lifestyle effects of PBS implementation in natural community contexts over extended periods of time. The current investigation was conducted to provide a descriptive analysis of PBS with diverse participants and broad measurement strategies over multiple years. Using extensive data portfolios for 21 participants, we employed rating scales to quantify changes in key variables from baseline through 2 years of intervention. The data revealed variable levels of intervention integrity, generalized reductions in problem behavior with occasional relapses, and encouraging enhancements across six domains of quality of life. This study represents an initial attempt to understand the processes and outcomes of behavioral support by documenting behavioral patterns across full days, entire years, and all environments. We discuss the need to consider new conceptual and methodological frameworks for further study of efficacious and sustainable behavior support.

This paper is in response to Dr. Jim Kauffman and colleagues' article titled Problems Related to Underservice of Students With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders, which was published in volume 33, issue 1, of Behavioral Disorders. We thank the editors of Behavioral Disorders for the opportunity to submit this response. With full acknowledgment of Dr. Kauffman's unquestionable qualifications as a leader in the of special education, we respectfully disagree with some key assumptions in that article and with specific statements regarding our own work. The work referenced by Kauffman et al. was a report of a 4-year ethnographic study of the processes by which Black and Hispanic children were placed into special education (including emotional and behavioral disorder [EBD]) programs (Harry & Klingner, 2006). The issue that fueled our research was ethnic disproportionality in special education.On reading the Kauffman et al. argument, we were puzzled by the conflict between the authors' criticisms of our work and their eloquent explanation of the challenges facing special education, such as the ambiguity of the categories, the confounding effect of comorbidity, the difficulties of assessing EBD, and the influence of context on perceptions of appropriate behavior. These are precisely the issues that concern those of us who study the disproportionate placement of minorities in EBD programs. This is what our research was about.There are, however, some points of departure between our views and theirs. The main point of disagreement is whether diverse children, specifically African American boys, are among those considered underserved in EBD programs. We have serious questions about the notion of of children in general in EBD programming, particularly in light of intransigent and decades-long rates of overrepresentation of specific subgroups in this category. On most other points, we agree with the principles espoused by Kauffman et al. but disagree on the means of arriving at them. We address the arguments as follows: First, we explain why we disagree with the belief that children representing all groups are underserved in EBD. We underscore our agreement with Kauffman et al. that the category itself is ambiguously defined, but we emphasize the challenges that cultural difference and the country's history of racism bring to this issue. We then turn to an explicit defense of our research methodology and the resultant findings because Kauffman et al. seem not to be aware of the rigor with which we approached our task. Third, we address some of the implications of our findings, namely, issues of stigma, restrictive placement in EBD programs, and the concept of prevention. Finally, we take issue with view of Kauffman et al. that scholars who criticize special education should leave the field (p. 47). Overall, throughout our argument, we contend that an ecological approach and current proposals for multitiered models of intervention that emphasize matching targeted, research-based, early intervention efforts to students at risk for behavioral problems will improve practice as well as outcomes, replacing the notion of of disability with one of prevention and support.The Premise of Under and UnderserviceTwo premises underlying the Kauffman et al. article are the following: first, that there is a problem of underidentification and underservice of children with EBD and, second, that children's access to special education services should be dependent on identification of disability.Regarding the first premise - that the rate of placement in EBD indicates we are aware that this is a widely accepted perspective (Kerr & Nelson, 2006). However, although Kauffman et al. base this premise on figures from mental health services, these prevalence rates are highly variable, with estimates ranging from 2% to 20% of the school-age population (Kauffman, 2005; U. …

Targeted interventions (also called Tier 2 interventions or secondary interventions) are implemented within a comprehensive three-tiered system of support consisting of universal interventions (for all students), targeted interventions (for students exhibiting mild behavioral difficulties), and intensive interventions (for students requiring individualized support). Check-in/check-out is a targeted intervention designed to reduce incidences of disruptive behavior and increase prosocial behavior. Although check-in/check-out has been shown to be effective in a number of published articles, studies are still needed documenting (a) the utility of this intervention when implemented by educators as part of the larger school system of support and (b) guidelines for increasing the likelihood the intervention is matched to students most likely to benefit. In the current study, the authors address both of these needs by evaluating effects of a school's implementation of check-in/check-out with two typically developing students in the school. When the intervention did not produce significant effects, the authors modified the intervention slightly based on outcomes of functional behavior assessments conducted prior to beginning the intervention; this resulted in positive outcomes for both students. These results demonstrate the utility of considering the function of problem behavior prior to implementing a targeted intervention such as check-in/check-out. Implications for other targeted interventions are discussed.

The authors examined the academic characteristics of 140 elementary-aged students served under the category of emotional disturbance (ED) from schools that differed in income level, performance on state testing, and suspension rates. School income accounted for a large amount of the variance in the reading and math achievement of students with ED as measured by the Woodcock-Johnson III. However, relative academic performance (as measured by performance on state testing compared with same-school peers and teacher ratings of academic competence) was similar across school income levels. Implications for intervention research and eligibility practices for students with ED are discussed.

In 2000, the National Reading Panel compiled a definitive report of effective methods for reading instruction. As a population that generally demonstrates numerous problems with reading, students with emotional and behavioral disorders may benefit from the National Reading Panel's published findings. This review examined and compared the number and outcomes of published reading studies for students with emotional and behavioral disorders before and after the release of the panel's report. Results from the 21 studies meeting inclusion criteria indicated a fivefold increase in publication rate since 2000 and a shift from single to multiple reading measures as study outcomes. Additional results appear consistent with reading conclusions drawn by the National Reading Panel. This review also addresses future directions for researchers.

This study attempted to discover how anger, locus of control, and impulsivity are related to aggression. Two pathways to aggression were examined: a cognitive/schema pathway and an emotion/impulsivity pathway. The sample included 242 fourth- and fifth-grade boys. Using data from several questionnaires, teachers reported on levels of reactive and proactive aggressive behaviors, parents reported on the participants’ impulsivity, and the participants reported on locus of control and anger. Results indicated that anger and impulsivity were positively associated with aggression. Internal locus of control for success was negatively associated with aggression. In addition, impulsivity mediated the relation between anger and aggression. Implications for intervention are also discussed based on the mediation results.

This study determined the effects of sound-field amplification (SFA) on the speed with which students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) followed teacher directions. A multiple baseline design was used with 3 elementary-aged students with ADHD to assess the effects of SFA across 4 types of directions: (a) task demand (e.g., get out your math book); (b) high preference activity (e.g., line up for recess); (c) alpha commands (clear, direct, specific instructions); and (d) beta commands (vague multiple instructions given simultaneously). The speed with which all participants followed all 4 types of directions increased. Implications for this easy, relatively inexpensive device as well as areas for future research are discussed.