Summary Study aim: The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of two different recovery durations (2 min versus 5 min) on the physiological responses (power output, stretch-shortening cycle and lactate concentration) to a 5×6 s repeated cycling sprint exercise protocol in pre-pubescent soccer players. Materials and methods: Twelve male soccer players (age 12.23 ± 0.55 yrs, body mass 43.6 ± 5.5 kg and height 156.1 ± 5.8 cm) performed 5 × 6 s sprints on a cycle ergometer (Ergomedic 874E, Monark, Sweden) against 0.075 times their body mass resistance on two occasions within a week. In one session there was a 2 min recovery and in the other there was a 5 min recovery in a counterbalanced order. A squat jump (SJ) and a countermovement jump (CMJ) were tested before and after each trial, and the eccentric utilisation ratio (EUR) was calculated as CMJ/SJ. Results: No significant trial × recovery interaction was observed in the participants’ peak power (p = 0.891, η2 = 0.118), mean power (p = 0.910, η2 = 0.106), SJ (p = 0.144, η2 = 0.630), CMJ (p = 0.616, η2 = 0.347) and EUR (p = 0.712, η2 = 0.295). However, a main effect of the trial on the CMJ of a large magnitude (p = 0.006, η2 = 0.862) was found, in which a higher score was recorded in the third trial than in the first trial (23.3 versus 21.8 cm). No differences were found in the lactate concentrations examined 5 min after the end of the protocol between the two recovery conditions (6.7 ± 1.8 vs. 6.0 ± 1.6 mmol · L–1, in the 2 and 5 min recovery, respectively, Cohen’s d = 0.4). Conclusions: The duration of the passive recovery time (2 min vs. 5 min) in trials of repeated sprints did not induce important changes either to the indices of the jumping performance or to the power output in pre-pubescent participants.

Summary Study aim: To examine the relationship between the behaviour of student athletes in the classroom in sport schools in Turkey and their teachers’ burnout level. Material and methods: The sample of the study consisted of 226 teachers from sport high schools in Turkey. A questionnaire developed by Özdemir (2009) was used to ascertain students’ unwanted behaviour and the Maslach burnout inventory developed by Maslach and Jackson (1981) was used to assess the views of the research group. The data obtained were analysed through the SPSS 18.0 software. Results: The research group complained of student behaviour including ‘speaking without permission’ during the course, ‘not having the necessary equipment for the course’, ‘not performing a given task’ and ‘not listening to the teacher’. A positive linear and moderate level relationship was found between the emotional burnout and depersonalization sub-dimensions. Suggesting that, as emotional burnout level increases so does the level of indifference. A positive and linear but low-level relationship was found between the emotional burnout and personal failure sub-dimensions. Suggesting that, as emotional burnout level increases so does personal failure. In addition, a positive and linear but low-level relationship was observed between the depersonalization and personal failure sub-dimensions. In other words, as the level of indifference increases so does personal failure. A significant difference was seen in the period of service variable of the depersonalization sub-dimension in the research group. Significant differences were observed in accordance with personal failure, period of service and fields of study. Conclusions: Teachers should analyse their students in terms of academic and personal development in order to reduce negative behaviours in the classroom. Teachers should be able to help students in whatever field they need. Teachers in sports schools should receive support in adapting to the institutional culture of the schools.

Summary Study aim: the aim of this study was to determine how body height, body weight, and moderate physical activity affected postural stability in young schoolchildren. Materials and methods: the study population consisted of 148 primary school pupils. To assess postural stability, we used the CQStab2P stabilometric equipment (the bi-platform version), and an assessment of physical activity was conducted via questionnaire. Results: the study revealed that both greater body weight and greater body height positively affected postural stability in the studied population. We found a low, yet significant correlation regarding postural stability in children who attended sports classes. In the cases of path length and mean amplitude of sway with eyes closed, the children who were more active in sports had better vertical postural stability. We did not find any relationships between static balance and the number of sports classes attended in a week, or with participating in extra academic classes. Conclusions: 1. Children’s postural stability improved with age. 2. Children who took part in sports classes had better body balance. 3. The number of sports classes attended did not correlate with better postural stability.

Summary Study aim: this study examined the item difficulty and item discrimination scores for the HRFK PE Metrics cognitive assessment tool for 5th-grade students. Materials and methods: ten elementary physical education teachers volunteered to participate. Based on convenience, participating teachers selected two 5th grade physical education classes. Teachers then gave students (N = 633) a 28-question paper and pencil HRFK exam using PE Metrics Standards 3 and 4. Item difficulty and discrimination analysis and Rasch Modeling were used data to determine underperforming items. Results: analysis suggests that at least three items are problematic. The Rasch Model confirmed this result and identified similar items with high outfit mean square values and low Point Biserial correlation values. Conclusions: teachers are in need of valid and reliable HRFK assessment tools. Without the removal of three items in the PE Metrics HRFK exam for 5th-grade students, complete use of the exam could offer incorrect conclusions.

Summary Study aim: the aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between willingness to continue training in spite of health risks and the following variables: age, body parameters and selected elements of body image as well as duration, amount and intensity of training sessions. Material and methods: the study’s participants were 140 women aged 18 to 35 years who had been training at a fitness club for between 1 and 15 years. The following tools were used: Figure Rating Scale, a modified Body Satisfaction Scale, and a questionnaire to investigate actual and ideal body parameters, motivation to begin training and training parameters. Results: women who were willing to discontinue fitness training due to potential health risks exercised less often and engaged in shorter training sessions with less intensity. They were also more dissatisfied with their motor fitness. Higher readiness to continue training can be expected from women with more training experience, who are motivated by a need to improve their appearance, who are more satisfied with their motor fitness and who have a lower ideal BMI. Conclusions: the results of the study suggest that women who complete greater amounts of exercise and are more motivated to train for aesthetic reasons rather than for reasons related to fitness are more prone to obligatory exercise.

Summary Study aim: The purpose of this study was to assess the physiological cost of three consecutive official boxing fights played during a 3-day tournament and two non-contact specific drills against handheld pads of the same time-profile as the contest, 4 × 2 minutes with 1-minute intervals between them. This assessment was based on the determination of selected hormones and metabolites in the blood sampled directly prior to the contests and throughout short-term post-contest recovery. Material and methods: A female amateur boxer was enrolled on the study during a 3-day Polish Boxing Championship, where one match was played on each day. The timing of capillary blood sampling during each match and the drill was as follows: 10 minutes prior to the effort, and 3 and 30 minutes after its completion. Cortisol (C), testosterone (T), and glucose (G) were determined in the serum, while lactate (LA) was determined in the blood. In addition, prior to each effort, serum creatine kinase (CK) and urea (U) was determined. Directly after each effort, the perception of fatigue (PF) was rated. Results: G, C, and T during official matches were significantly higher than those during non-contact drills. Post-event G, C, T, and LA were higher compared to pre-event values. Conclusions: An official boxing match produced higher stress than a drill of the same time-profile and similar modality. Changes in blood indices corresponded well with the perception of fatigue.

Summary Study aim: We examine the body sway differences between a) pistol and rifle and b) elite and national level senior male Olympic shooters, as well as the possible relation between body sway and performance at competition in Olympic shooting. Material and methods: Two body sway tests (feet together and feet apart) were performed by 28 Spanish male senior Olympic shooters just before competition. Performance was measured as the actual score at competition. Total center of mass (COM) areas and average/maximum COM velocities were calculated from force platform data. ANCOVA tests were implemented with age as a covariable. The non-parametric test U of Mann Whitney was used to study the differences between national and elite shooters. Pearson correlations were used to examine the relation between performance and total COM area. Results: At the feet apart position, rifle and elite shooters were found to have statistically less body sway than pistol and national level shooters respectively (total COM areas: F 1,25 = 6.7; p < 0.05, and Z = 2.36; p < 0.01). No statistically significant differences were found regarding the feet together position, regardless the level or discipline (total COM areas: F 1,25 = 1.49 ; p > 0.05; 1 – β = 0.22, average COM velocities: F 1,25 = 0.58; p > 0.05; 1 – β = 0.11, maximum COM velocities: F 1,25 = 0.03; p > 0.05; 1 – β = 0.05). No significant relation was found between body sway and performance at competition (feet together: r = 0.13, feet apart: r = 0.14, p > 0.05). Age and body sway were not found to be significantly correlated (F 1,25 = 0.23; p > 0.05; 1 – β = 0.08). Conclusions: Easy to carry out, non-specific body sway tests can be used for the selection of novice shooters.

Increasing pupil physical activity: a comprehensive professional development effort Study aim : To determine if pupil physical activity and Body Mass Index classifications maintained or improved after a one-year professional development program involving both classroom and physical education teachers. Guskey's model of teacher change guided this study. Material and methods : Indigenous children from ten schools (N = 320) in grades 3-12 from one community participated in this year-long comprehensive school change effort. Classroom (n = 31) and physical education teachers (n = 7) participated in this study as intervention (n = 27) or comparison (n = 11) teachers. Intervention teachers participated in a year-long professional development program to increase physical activity and healthy behaviour knowledge of pupils. Results : ANOVA results for pupil physical activity (measured using pedometry) indicated that both groups of pupils (intervention and comparison) became significantly more active over time. The intervention groups' behaviour was less stable (α = 0.71) over time versus the comparison group (α = 0.86), suggesting positive behaviour changes. No significant Body Mass Index changes were found. Conclusions : Although the intervention resulted in physical activity increases for both intervention and comparison pupils at the schools, change takes time and these initial findings show progress in increasing physical activity behaviours at school in an understudied and disadvantaged population of indigenous USA youth.

Body posture of young female basketball players Study aim: To assess body posture and somatic parameters in young females practicing basketball in comparison with their non-training peers and to state whether there is a relationship between the quality of one's posture and the length and frequency of training. Material and methods: The study included 32 young female basketball players aged 13-15 years old. The period of basketball practice was 3-4 years for the group aged 13-14 years; the frequency of practice was 3-7 times per week. In the case of the group of 15-year-olds, it was 4-5 years, 4-7 times a week, respectively. The control group consisted of 37 young female subjects in the same age brackets that did not participate in any directed physical activity. Body height was measured with the use of a height meter at medical scales, whereas body mass, fat mass, and total body water mass were defined with the use of Tanita electronic scale. A specialist device using the projection Moiré method (MORA, CQElektronik System, Poland) was used to assess one's body posture. Results: Body height and water mass were significantly different in the younger group. However, the parameters of body posture differed significantly only in the group of 15-year-olds. The following have been observed: much greater asymmetries in pelvic placement in the transverse plane (p<0.05), significantly greater asymmetries of shoulder blades in relation to the transverse plane (p<0.01), as well as significantly smaller thoracic kyphosis angle (p<0.05) in female basketball players in comparison with the placement of the above parameters in their non-training peers. Moreover, correlations between the frequency of basketball practice and the deflection of the line of spinous processes, torso inclination angle, placement of shoulder blades in the transverse plane and towards the spine, kyphosis angle, and a synthetic index of body posture (i.e. postural symmetry) were noted. Conclusions: Training basketball may lead to increased occurrence of asymmetry of one's body posture.

Seasonal variation of American Indian children’s school-day physical activity Study aim : To examine the pedometer steps taken during the school-day by American Indian children during all four seasons. Material and methods: Participants included third-sixth grade children (n = 157) aged 9.6±1.07 (boys) and 9.7±1.2 (girls) attending school from one Southwestern US American Indian community. Children had a mean BMI of 23.9±7.7 with 70% being classified as overweight or obese. Children wore a pedometer (Yamax Digiwalker SW-200) for 20 days (5 days per season). Results : Children accumulated 4762±1544 (boys) and 4408±1194 (girls) steps/day across the four seasons with the highest totals occurring during the Fall (4899, males; 4796, females) and the lowest totals during the Winter (4463, males; 4043, females). Repeated measures ANOVA showed no significant differences in daily school-day steps across seasons. Children classified as normal weight averaged 5146±1688 steps/day, overweight children averaged 5020±1333 steps/day, and obese children accumulated 4275±1123 steps/day. Conclusions : PA stayed relatively consistent across seasons in this sample of children. However, children were the least active during Winter months. With 70% of the current sample being classified as overweight and with American Indian children at greater risk for numerous hypokinetic diseases there is a clear need for additional school-day PA opportunities.