COVID-19 (Coronavirus disease) is the most contagious virus, which has been characterized as a global pandemic by WHO. The pathological cycle of COVID-19 virus can be specified as RNAaemia, severe pneumonia, along with the Ground-glass opacity (GGO), and acute cardiac injury. The S protein of Coronavirus has been reported to be involved in the entry of the virus into the host cell, which can be accomplished by direct membrane fusion between the virus and plasma membrane. In the endoplasmic reticulum or Golgi membrane, the newly formed enveloped glycoproteins are introduced. The spread of disease occurs due to contact and droplets unleashed by the vesicles holding the virus particles combined with the plasma membrane to the virus released by the host. The present manuscript describes the pathogenesis of COVID-19 and various treatment strategies that include drugs such as chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine, an anti-malarial drug, antibodies: SARS-CoV-specific human monoclonal antibody CR3022 and plasma treatment facilitate the therapeutic effect.

Multiple sclerosis is a chronic inflammatory and demyelinating disorder of the central nervous system (CNS) that can cause cognition, mobility, and sensory impairments. Studies have shown that the immune system through inflammation and autoreactive T cells are involved in the progression of MS. The present article aimed to review the potent anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory agents that could modulate the immune response in MS. In herbal medicine, various medicinal plants including Olive, Silybum marianum, Grape, Pomegranate peel extract, Nigella sativa, Turmeric, Green tea, Aloysia citrodora, Boswellia papyrifera, Boswellia serrata, Ruta graveolens, and Andrographis paniculata are known with therapeutic benefits in MS patients through immunoregulation and reduction of major symptoms.

Most new HIV infections, over 80%, occur through sexual transmission. During sexual transmission, the virus must bypass specific female and male reproductive tract anatomical barriers to encounter viable target cells. Understanding the generally efficient ability of these barrier to exclude HIV and the precise mechanisms of HIV translocation beyond these genital barriers is essential for vaccine and novel therapeutic development. In this review, we explore the mucosal, barriers of cervico-vaginal and penile tissues that comprise the female and male reproductive tracts. The unique cellular assemblies f the squamous and columnar epithelium are illustrate highlighting their structure and function. Each anatomical tissue offers a unique barrier to virus entry in healthy individuals. Unfortunately barrier dysfunction can lead to HIV transmission. How these diverse mucosal barriers have the potential to fail is considered, highlighting those anatomical areas that are postulated to offer a weaker barrier and are; therefore, more susceptible to viral ingress. Risk factors, such as sexually transmitted infections, microbiome dysbiosis, and high progestin environments are also associated with increased acquisition of HIV. How these states may affect the integrity of mucosal barriers leading to HIV acquisition are discussed suggesting mechanisms of transmission and revealing potential targets for intervention.

Psoriasis is a complex autoimmune inflammatory disease with a genetic basis. The increased expression of IL-17F gene and protein is observed in the lesional skins of psoriatic patients. We and other groups discovered human IL-17F gene that shows the highest homology with IL-17A. IL-17F induces various inflammatory molecules, such as IL-6 and IL-8. IL-17F is mainly derived from Th17, Tc17 and ILC3 cells, and induces CCL20 expression, resulting in the recruitment of additional IL-17F-producing cells to enhance skin inflammation via CCR6. The receptor for IL-17F is the heterodimeric complex of IL-17RA and IL-17RC, and several signaling pathways have been identified. Injection with IL-17F in mice revealed marked neutrophilia in dermis, and its infiltration was significantly inhibited by anti-IL-8 antibody. Sequence variants of the IL-17F gene are associated with response to treatments, and a variant (rs763780) of IL-17F encodes an antagonist for the wild-type IL-17F. Hence, IL-17F may play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of psoriasis, and may provide a promising therapeutic target for development of novel strategies. Keywords: Psoriasis, IL-17 cytokine family, IL-17F.

Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL) is a hematological malignancy and the most prevalent form of childhood leukemia. Development of ALL is related to the blockade of lymphocyte differentiation, which might affect B or T precursor cells, resulting in the accumulation of blasts in bone marrow. Moreover, immunopathogenesis of ALL involves T regulatory cells (Tregs), which have been investigated in leukemic patients, presenting more immunosuppressive ability than those from normal individuals. Tregs are critical for the maintenance of autoreactive cells, affecting both lineages CD4+ and CD8+, and immune vigilance. Evaluating the role of Tregs in ALL is possible by determining biomarkers related to these cells, such as FOXP3, CD25, CTLA-4 and other molecules that contribute to immunoregulation. In this context, leukemic cells produce ligands that recruit Tregs to the marrow microenvironment, suppressing the antitumor immune response and supporting cancer development. Overall, although Tregs are necessary to inhibit autoreactive T cells, the excessive stimulation of these cells leads to an immunosuppressive state. Immunosuppression in ALL may be partially attributed to the indirect effect of blast cells, which recruit and allow Treg cells to expand, as well as to increase immunosuppressive molecules secreted by both cells. The involvement of Tregs in the immunopathogenesis and their implications in ALL are under the scope of this review and may have important implications in the future. Keywords: Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia, CD25, CTLA-4, FOXP3, Tregs.

The bacterial surface is a complex combination of various immunogenic components of genus, species, and strain specificity. Polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies, used widely in the manufacture of diagnostic test systems, have traditionally served as biological components for the specific detection of bacterial cells. In molecular biology, bacterial cell detection is performed with the help of genetic engineering technologies for cloning recognizing fragments (hypervariable immunoglobulin domains (miniantibodies). These technologies are cheaper and can be competitive in selectivity with hybridoma technologies. At present, research is actively working to improve cell detection sensitivity with the use of electro-optical and electro-acoustical analysis, the main problem being to select antibodies with greater analytical sensitivity. This review highlights the use of specific antibodies and miniantibodies in electro-optical and electro-acoustical analysis for the detection of bacterial cells. Keywords: Detection, antibodies, miniantibodies, electro-optical and electro-acoustic analysis, piezoelectric lateral and longitudinal electric-field excited resonators.

The cells of the innate immune system continually undergo surveillance of the extracellular milieu to serve as the first line of defense against invading microbial pathogens. As a result, these innate immune cells have evolved receptors to sense microbial motifs and danger signals. The inflammasome is an important component of the innate immune system’s “arsenal” against invading microbes such as viruses and bacteria and acts as a homeostatic checkpoint to regulate inflammation. Inflammasomes are cytosolic multi-protein complexes that activate caspase 1 and 11, which result in the production of pro-inflammatory interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18, and cell death. Several studies have uncovered the mechanisms of inflammasome activation in response to various stimuli ranging from environmental stimulants to microbial components. This mini-review summarizes the current developments and updates in the mechanism of action of inflammasomes.