ABSTRACT This randomized controlled trial assessed a 10-week Listening- and Singing-embedded Music-game (LSM) activities protocol aimed at enhancing executive functions (EF) – inhibitory control (IC), working memory (WM), and cognitive flexibility (CF) – in 52 preschoolers (4–5 years) from a rural kindergarten in China. Children were randomly assigned to the music-game training (MGT) group or a control group. EF was assessed at pre-test (T1), post-test (T2), and a 2-month follow-up (T3). Significant interactions between group and time were found, with the MGT group showing improvements in EF from T1 to T2, and sustained benefits at T3, especially in visuospatial working memory and inhibitory control. The study demonstrates that low-material, schedule-compatible routines can yield sustained EF benefits. Findings support the integration of such routines into early education programmes, with recommendations for future replications using cluster randomization, blinded assessments, and extended follow-ups.

ABSTRACT We examined children's indoor and outdoor structured and unstructured play in home settings to explore their links with divergent thinking (DT) and receptive vocabulary. The sample included 222 children (51% boys; mean age = 5.44 years, SD = 0.50). Children's DT was assessed through object substitution during solitary free play in kindergarten, and receptive vocabulary was measured using a standardized test. Mothers reported the frequency of indoor and outdoor play activities. Structural equation modeling indicated that specific unstructured play activities were indirectly associated with receptive vocabulary via DT. The findings suggest that engagement in pretend play and art activities at home may provide children with opportunities to practice DT through object and material substitutions, thereby supporting receptive vocabulary development. At the same time, the modest size of these effects emphasizes the need for cautious interpretation and highlights that play is just one of several factors affecting children's language development.

ABSTRACT Executive functions (EFs) are known to emerge early in child development and contribute, along with other factors, to the acquisition of socio-emotional skills, language abilities and academic achievement. Some studies have demonstrated an association between mothers’ EFs and children’s EFs, but only a few have included both parents. The objective of this study is therefore to examine the relative contribution of EFs of both parents on the development of EFs in early childhood. A sample of 67 expectant parents (both mothers and fathers) reported on their EFs during pregnancy. When their child was two years-old, parents completed a questionnaire reporting on their child’s EFs. Multiple linear regressions show that, globally, each parent’s lower EFs uniquely contribute to predict the child's EFs, namely lower inhibition, flexibility and emergent metacognition. Maternal metacognitive EFs and paternal behavioural EFs are the main predictors of children’s EFs. Parental behaviours’ contribution to children’s cognitive development are discussed.

ABSTRACT The theory-of-mind concept and its measurement method, the false-belief task, have dominated the field of social understanding. One reason for this situation is the historical and theoretical background of the theory-of-mind paradigm rooted in Cartesian cognitivism centred on representations. Tracing the birth of the false-belief task, this study illuminates the tacit premises of the paradigm and provides an overview of objections from phenomenological and non-Western perspectives. Arguably, the theory of the fast and slow processes of social understanding is plausible for bridging the gap between the theory-of-mind and phenomenological explanations. However, this study proposes that the two-process theory fails to satisfactorily elucidate the sociocultural construction of social understanding. The discussion provides a deeper appraisal of its sociocultural nature and a reappraisal of the Western theory-of-mind concept.

ABSTRACT The present study investigated the role of theory of mind (ToM) on childhood creativity and in the formulation of a complex creative ToM, namely the ability to take into consideration the mental states of others to produce original and appropriate ideas beyond the ordinary. For this purpose, a sample of 176 young schoolaged children completed a set of ToM and creativity tasks. Results demonstrated ToM skills were not significantly correlated with participants' attainment of creativity and creative ToM tasks. However, scores on the Unexpected Content ToM task significantly predicted creative fluency. Also, children who had acquired ToM as assessed by the Unexpected Content task were found to achieve higher scores both on creative fluency and originality. That said, despite their growing sociocognitive skills, young children may formulate their creative ideas based on what is intrapersonally unique rather than taking into account the potential ideas of their peers.

ABSTRACT Aiming to examine social norms regarding secondborn's sharing behaviour after the reversal of the one-child policy, three studies were conducted to explore preschoolers’ sharing behaviours (Study 1, n = 88); their evaluations (Study 2, n = 93); and adults’ evaluations (Study 3, n = 535) of younger siblings’ sharing behaviour toward their older siblings, good friends, and strangers. The results showed that secondborn preschoolers tended to share more with older siblings and good friends than with strangers, while being indifferent to or making no distinction between older siblings and good friends. However, both preschoolers and adults tended to be more tolerant if secondborn preschoolers shared less with older siblings than with strangers or good friends. Overall, these findings suggest that the traditional norm of ‘older gives way to younger’ persists as a social norm in contemporary China, despite the growing emphasis on sibling interactions and fairness in sibling sharing.

ABSTRACT In this study, we investigated the direct and indirect associations between children’s attachment representations of parents and their representations of friendships with their reported feelings about school (school liking and avoidance). A story completion task was administered to 91 preschool children to assess attachment security with their parents. Approximately three months later, the children completed a story completion task about friendships and provided information about their feelings toward school. Children's attachment representations with their parents were positively associated with school liking and negatively associated with school avoidance. Similarly, attachment security with parents was associated with children's positive friendship representations. The indirect effects of children's positive friendship representations on the associations between attachment security with parents and school liking and avoidance were significant. These results revealed the potential importance of children's representations of close relationships for the development and maintenance of their adjustment to school.

ABSTRACT This longitudinal study examined links between parental involvement in infancy and toddlerhood and children’s stress hormone levels in the preschool years. The relationships between pregnancy stress, parental involvement, and children’s gender were also investigated. Sixty-five (29 girls and 36 boys) healthy and typically developing children participated, providing developmental and salivary cortisol data every 6 months for four consecutive years starting when the children were about 8 months of age. At the start of the study, mothers reported whether their pregnancy was stressed. They also answered questions every 6 months about daily family activities contributing to a composite score on parental involvement. Results indicated that higher parental involvement during their child’s infancy and toddlerhood positively related to children’s higher stress, during the preschool years, indexed as higher salivary cortisol. Mothers who reported being stressed during pregnancy reported greater parental involvement with boys than with girls during infancy and toddlerhood.

ABSTRACT Negative parenting behaviours can adversely affect child development, and understanding the underlying mechanisms is crucial. This study examines whether adult attachment anxiety and avoidance are associated with negative parenting behaviours and whether general and maternal mentalization mediate these associations. A cross-sectional survey was conducted with 267 first-time mothers of children aged 1 to 5 years, who completed self-report measures of adult attachment, general mentalization, maternal mentalization, and negative parenting behaviours. Higher adult attachment anxiety and avoidance were associated with lower general and maternal mentalization and greater negative parenting behaviours. Mediation analysis indicated that general mentalization partially mediated these relationships, while maternal mentalization fully mediated the attachment avoidance–negative parenting link. Findings highlight the associations between adult attachment, mentalization, and parenting behaviours, emphasizing the need for further longitudinal studies to examine causal mechanisms.

ABSTRACT Preschool children’s behavioural problems significantly affect their development and the effectiveness of teachers’ teaching. It is crucial to understand how teachers perceive and manage these behavioural problems. This study analyzed questionnaire data from 517 teachers across Beijing, Henan, Fujian, Guangdong, and Hainan, supplemented by event-sampling observations from 29 teachers in Chinese kindergartens. It uncovered several high-frequency behavioural problems, including fussiness about food, breaking rules, aggressive behaviour, and non-participation in activities. Notably, the study identified an unstable pattern in behavioural problems over three kindergarten years, pinpointing the second year as a critical shifting period of these problems. Additionally, significant discrepancies were found between teacher reports and classroom observations regarding the prevalence and developmental patterns of behavioural problems. These findings highlight the need to provide teachers with targeted and grade-specific training to manage behavioural problems effectively and to develop joint assessment models involving teachers and trained observers to create effective intervention programmes.