Forest carbon offset programs are emerging as critical tools in mitigating climate change that support sustainable forest management. This study evaluates the carbon sequestration potential and economic viability of 13 distinct forest management scenarios using forest growth simulator (FVS) under both the Climate Action Reserve (CAR) and the American Carbon Registry (ACR) offset protocols. Scenarios included intensive practices such as clear-cutting with artificial regeneration, intermediate treatments like thinning and shelterwood, and passive approaches such as no management and prescribed burning. The no management (M0) scenario yielded the highest cumulative carbon storage but lacked the economic returns necessary for landowners' profit from selling the timber at mills. Conversely, high-grading and repeated clear-cutting scenarios resulted in lower carbon sequestration but higher net present value (NPV) for pine, but less for hardwood and mixed. Notably, the CAR protocol consistently generated greater offsets than ACR due to differences in baseline assumptions and accounting methodologies. This research highlights the trade-offs between carbon sequestration and economic returns. These findings offer actionable insights for landowners, policymakers, and offset program designers aiming to enhance climate benefits through forest management strategies. • Forest carbon offset programs help address climate change while supporting sustainable forest management. • This study evaluated 13 forest management scenarios using FVS under CAR and ACR carbon offset protocols. • M5, M9, and M10 scenarios produced higher NPVs across pine, hardwood, and mixed forest stands. • CAR produced higher carbon offsets than ACR due to differences in baseline assumptions and accounting methods. • Analysis shows a trade-off between maximizing carbon storage and economic returns in forest management planning.

In arid and semi-arid ecosystems, the duration of vegetation response to rainfall pulses varies with the magnitude and timing of the precipitation event. Extreme weather events, such as tropical cyclones, can trigger long-lasting ecological responses. In this study, we examined the impact of tropical cyclones on ecosystem gross primary production (GPP) in the Pilbara, Western Australia, and identified two distinct effects: direct and legacy effects. Our findings reveal that tropical cyclones delivering substantial rainfall lead to an immediate increase in GPP. This direct effect typically persists for approximately two months. Following this initial GPP increase, the ecosystems exhibit altered responses to subsequent rainfalls, a phenomenon we define as the legacy effect, which lasts for about 100 days. On average, tropical cyclones contribute an additional 30 g C/m 2 /y GPP during a water year, with 40% of this additional GPP attributed to the legacy effect, compared with tropical-cyclone-unaffected areas in the semi-arid tropics of Western Australia. However, prolonged drought can diminish the legacy effect. These findings improve our understanding of how changes in precipitation patterns driven by global climate change may influence carbon assimilation and ecosystem resilience in semi-arid regions. This diagram shows the two stages of tropical cyclone effects and the additional GPP caused by tropical cyclones in the Pilbara basin, tropical Western Australia. During the direct-effect stage, GPP increases due to the immediate rainfall pulse and returns to its pre-TC event level after approximately two months. During the legacy-effect stage, GPP increases due to better conditions caused by tropical cyclone rainfall, including increased deep soil water, larger foliage cover, and enhanced shallow root systems. The tropical cyclone rainfall brings additional 30 g C/m 2 per water year on average. • In addition to the immediate direct effect, tropical cyclones also improve vegetation response to subsequent rainfall (the legacy effect). • The direct effect lasts for ∼two months, and the legacy effect for ∼three months. • The legacy effect is substantiated by foliage cover and shallow roots. • Tropical cyclones contribute 30 g C/m 2 /yr, of which 40% comes from the legacy effect. • Extended droughts can suppress the legacy effect.

Studies on the impact of land use/land cover changes on ecosystem service value (LULCC-ESV) have remained sparse or highly concentrated in specific regions, i.e., Asia, Europe, and North America. In Africa and Latin America, particularly in Ramsar-designated sites, such studies remain historically scarce despite increased exposure of these sites to human activities. This paper applied multi-temporal, high-resolution, and statistical approaches to evaluate i) the spatial-temporal scales of Elephant Marsh LULCC-ESV and ii) the drivers of ESV changes. The main goal is to generate much-needed evidence for real-time decision-making and the enactment of “wise use” principles. The principal findings indicate losses of forest, marshes, shrubland, and area covered by water at annual rates of 205.53 ha, 592.13 ha, 187.66 ha, and 23.43 ha, respectively, during 1998–2022. These land cover types were converted into barren (64.04 ha/yr), cultivated (894.4 ha/yr), and settlement (43 ha/yr). Marshes had the highest ESV in 1998, i.e., US$4.28 billion. However, their ESV declined at an annual rate of 0.87% (declining to US$2.28 billion by 2022). Water, forest, and shrubland experienced annual ESV losses of 0.25%, 1.27%, and 0.94%, respectively. Cultivated and settlement areas gained annual ESV at rates of 0.73% and 0.28%, respectively. Overall, the annual rate of ESV loss due to LULCC was estimated at 0.73% (declining from US$4.40 billion to US$2.54 billion during 1998–2022). Significant ( P < 0.01, 0.05, and 0.1) cold and hot spot ESV clusters were observed at several notable sites in the wetland, although some areas also showed no significant ( P > 0.01, 0.05, and 0.1) cold or hot spots. Several key factors, including population growth, livestock production, agricultural production, extreme weather events, policy conflicts, and irrigation expansion, significantly contributed to the ESV loss ( P < 0.01 or 0.05). From a Ramsar Convention perspective, our findings offer valuable insights into actionable ecological restoration and management of designated arid and semi-arid Sub-Saharan wetlands. • The study explored wetland LULCC and its impact on ESVs. • Findings show that Elephant Marsh wetland ESVs are sensitive to LULCC. • LULCC resulted in a net loss of about US$2.13 billion ESVs during the study period. • Robust wetland governance system is required to halt loss of Ramsar wetland ecological value.