Abstract This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the associations between executive functions (EFs) and reading in elementary school children. Framed by the unity and diversity model of EF and the direct and indirect effects model of reading, this review aimed to clarify how EFs (inhibition, shifting, and updating) uniquely contribute to reading development (word reading, listening comprehension, reading fluency, and reading comprehension). The review followed PRISMA guidelines and searched six databases (PubMed, PsycINFO, Embase, Web of Science, Scopus, and ProQuest). A qualitative synthesis of 69 identified studies revealed that differences in associations between EFs and reading were shaped by the nature of the EF tasks (i.e., targeted domain, task paradigm, scoring method) and differences in reading assessments (i.e., targeted skill, format). Sixty studies (yielding 275 effect sizes) met criteria for meta-analysis, revealing significant associations between EF and reading outcomes, with updating showing the largest descriptive association. This review highlights that while EFs are related to reading, their associations vary by measurement approach. It underscores the importance of task and assessment design in interpreting the EF-reading link. Implications for theory, educational practice, and directions for future research are discussed.

Existing motivation interventions typically focus on what can be done to enhance learners’ motivation. However, these approaches do not systematically teach learners to become their own motivational agents. This article proposes motivational apprenticeship, a conceptual framework that extends cognitive apprenticeship principles to help learners develop autonomous motivational regulation skills. The framework comprises six key components: modeling (experts demonstrate motivational strategies and thought processes), coaching (experts provide individualized guidance), scaffolding (supports that gradually fade as learners gain proficiency), articulation (learners verbalize their motivational states), reflection (learners analyze their motivational patterns), and exploration (learners apply strategies to new contexts). The framework emphasizes making motivational processes visible, situating motivational development in authentic contexts, and fostering metacognitive awareness of motivation. The framework contributes to motivation theory by viewing motivation as a teachable skill set rather than solely an internal state. It provides educators with practical methods for cultivating learners’ capacity for lifelong motivational self-regulation. We discuss practical implementation considerations, acknowledge key challenges, and outline directions for future research.

Abstract Students frequently rely on ineffective learning strategies instead of those that promote long-term retention. This is not simply a matter of lacking metacognitive knowledge. Research on self-regulated learning typically emphasizes that students deliberately avoid effective strategies due to time and effort demands, or because their academic goals can be met without them. In this paper, we aim to expand this perspective by investigating the role of non-deliberate, habitual behaviors in students’ self-directed use of learning strategies. Drawing on key principles of habit and habit formation, we argue that particularly ineffective learning strategies tend to develop strong habitual tendencies. An overreliance on them may therefore stem not only from a lack of deliberate choices but also from their automatic activation in response to environmental cues. We explore this idea both theoretically, by analyzing how ineffective strategies align with habit characteristics, and empirically, through a proof-of-concept study comparing the habit strength of strategies that differ in effectiveness. By framing learning strategy use through a habit-based lens, we highlight non-deliberate learning behavior and discuss possible implications for interventions that leverage behavior-change principles to promote the adoption of effective strategies.

Abstract In a recent response, Núñez-Regueiro et al. (2025) criticized our findings (Sorjonen et al. 2025) that were inconsistent with the reciprocal effects model (REM) of self-concepts and achievement. Here we respond to points raised. We show again that data used to support the REM may also be used to support an inconsistent decreasing effect of self-concept on achievement. We also show that an extended version of the REM, endorsed by Marsh et al. (2024), may seemingly be supported by data generated without any direct effects between self-concept and achievement. This means that such effects in observational data can arise under non-causal data-generating processes and do, therefore, not provide strong evidence for a causal effect of self-concept on achievement.

Abstract Example-based learning is a well-known instructional method for effective cognitive skill acquisition in complex domains. (Contrasting) erroneous examples are a promising extension that embed errors in instructional material, potentially fostering not only positive but negative knowledge. However, the mechanisms and conditions for their effectiveness remain unclear. This systematic review synthesized findings from 40 studies across disciplines to examine how influential factors affect the effectiveness of (contrasting) erroneous examples. Results show that these examples can enhance learning, but their benefits depend on how errors are explained or highlighted, how prompts are designed, and on learners’ prior knowledge and cognitive capabilities. While erroneous examples appear similarly effective across comparison groups, contrasting erroneous examples are more often effective than correct examples and problem-solving and are sometimes equally or even more effective than erroneous examples. While prompts that require learners to identify, explain, correct, or reflect on errors often promote deeper learning, they may also shift the balance from productive engagement toward cognitive overload, particularly when the material is complex. Evidence on prior knowledge, cognitive load, and long-term effects appears to be contradictory, especially in the comparison between contrasting erroneous examples and erroneous examples. Our review highlights the need for further empirical research to determine how these factors must be balanced to maximize learning benefits and to clarify under which conditions (contrasting) erroneous examples are most effective.