collective security; cybersecurity; hybrid war; sovereignty; intervention

The research relevance is determined by the transformation of climate diplomacy into one of the key components of global governance in response to the worsening climate crisis. The study aimed to analyse the process of institutionalisation of climate diplomacy in the context of the transformation of the modern system of international relations. The methodology was based on an interdisciplinary approach that combined comparative, typological, interpretive, structural and functional methods, as well as the method of value analysis and political deconstruction. The study found that climate diplomacy has evolved from classical intergovernmental negotiations to a polycentric model of global governance with the active participation of non-state actors. The study identified the key stages of institutionalisation from the first environmental forums of the 1970s to the formation of a complex architecture of agreements and mechanisms such as the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement. The study analysed the structural and functional features of modern diplomacy, which includes negotiation, scientific and coordination subsystems operating both within and outside the United Nations. The study established that the regulatory framework of climate diplomacy is formed on the principles of global justice, inclusiveness and transparency, but its implementation is limited by political fragmentation, lack of funding and conflicting interests of actors. The study determined that institutional diffusion, regulatory hybridity and the use of digital technologies are becoming key trends in the development of this area. The theoretical analysis demonstrated that none of the existing paradigms, including institutionalism, constructivism or the concept of global governance, provides an exhaustive explanation of the phenomenon, but their combination creates a holistic picture. The study determined that climate diplomacy is a dynamic, multi-level process that both reflects and shapes the new logic of global cooperation. Its further institutionalisation depends on the ability to unite state and non-state actors around a common vision of climate justice. The practical significance of the study is determined by the formation of a conceptual framework for improving climate policy at the global and national levels

The study aimed to examine changes in the military policies of Central Asian countries, with a focus on the Kyrgyz Republic, after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. The research used content analysis of the Kyrgyz military doctrine and national security concept, comparative analysis of the military doctrines of Central Asian countries – Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan – and a case study approach on the border conflict with Tajikistan in April-May 2021 and the six-day armed conflict with Tajikistan in September 2022. The results showed that after the collapse of the Soviet Union, Kyrgyzstan faced challenges such as fragmented military infrastructure, resource insufficiency, and cross-border conflict risks. These risks led to a revision of the military doctrine and national security strategy between 2021 and 2023. A distinctive feature of the changed military policy is the pursuit of neutrality, peaceful conflict resolution, and a focus on the transformation of threats – hybrid, informational, and cyber. Unlike other Central Asian countries, the military budget of the Kyrgyz Republic is limited to 1.5% of gross domestic product, which motivates the country to avoid an arms race and opt for a more technological approach to national security. The lack of funds for large-scale rearmament is compensated by Kyrgyzstan’s participation in international alliances and military exercises and its agreement to maintain limited foreign presence. The experience of Kyrgyzstan can be used to prevent cross-border conflicts, create an integrated security system, and ensure stable regional development

The aim of the study was to critically analyse the effectiveness of international treaties in combating human trafficking. The study was conducted using dogmatic, comparative legal and criminological methods of analysis of international treaties, the case law of the European Court of Human Rights and national courts, statistical data from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, as well as the practice of implementing international obligations at the national level in European and Central Asian states. The study found that the Palermo Protocol demonstrates a significant imbalance between mandatory criminal prosecution of traffickers and discretionary measures to protect victims, which critically reduces its effectiveness and hinders victims’ cooperation with law enforcement agencies. Analysis of the data showed that sexual exploitation and forced labour account for almost equal shares in the overall structure of human trafficking, with a steady trend of significant growth in the number of underage victims, which highlights the problem of adequate implementation of special protection mechanisms. It has been established that making the provision of assistance conditional on cooperation with law enforcement agencies creates a pathological situation that contradicts basic human rights principles and undermines the effectiveness of both protection and prosecution. A comparative analysis of the Palermo Protocol and the Council of Europe Convention has demonstrated a qualitative transformation of the international legal approach from a crime-oriented to a comprehensive human rights model. The GRETA monitoring mechanism, with its independent expert status and powers to conduct regular visits, addresses the critical shortcoming of the universal instrument in terms of the lack of effective oversight of the implementation of international obligations. The results obtained can be used to improve national legislation, develop programmes for the protection and rehabilitation of victims, strengthen international cooperation and create independent monitoring mechanisms at the universal level

The relevance of this study stems from the growing role of religion in international relations, particularly amid crises, armed conflicts, and struggles for hegemony in regions with predominantly Muslim populations. Religion has increasingly functioned not only as a cultural marker but also as a tool for political mobilisation, legitimisation of foreign policy, and the formation of strategic alliances. This study aimed to explore the mechanisms, forms, and consequences of the instrumentalisation of religion in the foreign policy strategies of two countries – Turkey and Syria – taking into account the political context, historical background, and geopolitical environment. The study was based on historical-genetic, comparative political, discourse-analytical methods, and a systems approach. It was found that between the 2000s and 2010s, Turkey gradually moved away from a secular political model, systematically incorporating religious discourse into its soft power instruments, public diplomacy, and humanitarian initiatives. The institutional restructuring of the Diyanet, religion-oriented educational and media projects, and Turkey’s positioning as a leader of the Muslim world all indicated a systematic shift in policy. In contrast, Syria’s instrumentalisation of religion was driven by internal crisis, armed conflict, and the need to consolidate loyalist groups. Religion served as a resource for forming a confessional alliance with Iran and Hezbollah and as a tool to counter Salafi extremism. The study confirmed that in both cases, religion played not only a rhetorical but also a structural role in foreign policy. The findings are of value for religious diplomacy and the assessment of the risks of confessional escalation

This study aimed to identify the key factors influencing the legitimacy of international organisations within public discourse. The methodological framework was based on an interdisciplinary approach that integrates political science, organisational theory, and media studies. This enables an examination of legitimacy through the analysis of normative and legal documents, official reports, open information platforms, and media discourse. The findings indicated that compliance with international law, transparency in governance processes, effectiveness in achieving stated objectives, and adherence to normative standards are crucial elements shaping support for international organisations from member states, the international community, and the public. In particular, successful peacekeeping initiatives, epidemic control programmes, and environmental projects contribute to strengthening organisational reputation. In contrast, failures in crisis response, inadequate accountability, or disproportionate influence by certain donors may undermine trust. The study also revealed that the media and the public play a pivotal role in shaping the image of international organisations. Negative narratives that highlight bureaucratic obstacles, conflicts of interest, or delays in decision-making often exert a stronger influence on public perception than positive reports of success. In this context, effective communication strategies are particularly important, especially those aimed at enhancing transparency, responding promptly to criticism, and engaging with civil society. The findings provided a deeper understanding of the mechanisms underlying the formation of legitimacy for international organisations within the current global governance framework. They contributed to the further development of theoretical concepts related to trust in supranational institutions, the dynamics of organisational reputation, and the role of communication in maintaining or undermining legitimacy. This research offers new perspectives for future analysis of the interconnections between normative rationality, political legitimisation, and public expectations – perspectives which may serve as a foundation for further scholarly exploration in the field of global governance

The study aimed to analyse the mechanisms of international cooperation in the field of health care, to assess the effectiveness of global institutions, and to examine the role of the World Health Organization in shaping policy in this sector. Structural, comparative, and content analysis methods were applied, including the examination of political documents and the financial flows of the World Health Organization. The structure of global health diplomacy, the principles of international interaction, and the activities of key actors – including the governments of the United States of America, China, and the European Union, as well as international organisations, non governmental initiatives, the private sector, and academic centres – were studied. Ukraine’s participation in the COVID-19 Vaccines Global Access initiative and its cooperation with the World Health Organization were also analysed. It was found that the World Health Organization performs a key coordinating function; however, its effectiveness is limited by political pressure from the United States of America, China, and the European Union, financial dependency, bureaucratisation of procedures, and communication challenges during crises. It was recommended to increase the proportion of mandatory contributions, establish an independent oversight body, reform the governing structures, and enhance mechanisms for rapid response. Structural reforms are necessary to improve the effectiveness of the World Health Organization, including: increasing the share of mandatory contributions to the organisation’s budget to reduce dependence on earmarked donor funding; establishing an independent oversight body with a mandate to monitor the transparency of decision-making; improving emergency response procedures by introducing clear standards for promptly informing member states about disease outbreaks; and reforming the World Health Organization’s governing bodies to strengthen the participation of low- and middle-income countries. These measures would contribute to enhancing the organisation’s autonomy and its capacity to respond effectively to global health challenges. The findings of the study may be applied to strengthen global health governance and improve international security

This article aimed to explore the influence of the prominent American civil rights leader, M.L. King Jr., on the development of the international human rights movement and the shaping of global consciousness concerning social justice and equality. The study also examined how his actions contributed to the establishment of universal values related to freedom and equality. The research methodology involved analysing historical documents, speeches, and writings of M.L. King Jr., as well as a comparative analysis of human rights movements in various countries, to understand how Kingʼs ideas were received and adapted in different cultural contexts. The findings indicated that M.L. King Jr. had a profound impact on the formation of the international human rights movement. His non-violent approach to protest became a benchmark for many leaders and activists worldwide, and his speeches and ideas inspired numerous social justice campaigns, from South Africa to India and Latin America. The findings of the research included specific examples of how Kingʼs ideas were adapted in the context of human rights struggles in various countries, demonstrating the universality of his message and its capacity to inspire action. His activity has shown that non-violent struggle for rights and equality can have a lasting and profound impact on the global community, contributing to the creation of a more just and equitable society. Consequently, the research underscores the importance of preserving and disseminating Kingʼs ideas for future generations, as they remain vital in the ongoing fight for human rights worldwide. The results of this study can be utilised by educational institutions to develop programs teaching the principles of nonviolent resistance, by human rights organisations to refine protest and activism strategies, and by policymakers and thought leaders to formulate policies aimed at achieving social justice and equality in diverse cultural contexts

Academic peer-reviewed open-access journal that publishes original research and review articles in the field of historical and political science relating to the historical past, present, and prospects for international relations