Abstract Evacuation models represent one of the main tools used to assess building fire safety. Existing evacuation models are based on data from evacuation drills in western and developed countries, while there is a need for data from South Asian and developing countries (in general). This paper presents the results of an evacuation drill carried out in a library of a developing country in South Asia (Pakistan). The data of 85 student evacuees were recorded and analysed. Pre‐evacuation and walking speed data have been reported in this paper which are compared with the available data for library evacuations in other countries. The average pre‐evacuation time of 24.3 s (± standard deviation [SD] = 19.83 s) obtained in this study was shorter than previously published data for similar building types in other parts of the world. Furthermore, unimpeded horizontal speeds (mean = 0.74 m/s, SD = 0.28 m/s) were also smaller than the values reported in the available literature. Stair descending speeds (mean = 0.97 m/s, SD = 0.36 m/s) were within the ranges of stair movement data listed in previous studies. These findings represent a pioneering dataset for future building designs and evacuation simulations in developing countries.

Abstract Materials used for interior parts in buses are today fire classified according to UNECE Regulation 118, evaluating the horizontal and vertical burning rates and the melting behaviour. However, in recent accidents, the smoke has been identified as the critical parameter for deaths. An evaluation has been made of six materials used as interior parts in busses and is presented in this paper. Fire testing was conducted according to UNECE R 118 and smoke production including smoke gas toxicity was further evaluated with the smoke chamber test, EN ISO 5659‐2 and EN 17084. All six tested materials fulfilled the requirements of UNECE R 118; however, most materials showed fire properties which are not desirable, such as dark smoke and melting of large burning pieces. The tests with the smoke chamber showed that all materials gave a very high smoke production, in fact a smoke density value of the highest possible for the equipment to measure. This occurred only after a few minutes of test time. Thus, it can be concluded that this high smoke production will, in case of fire in a bus, reduce the visibility, and limit the ability of the passengers to safely evacuate. In addition, several toxic gases were detected in the smoke, both irritants and suffocating gases.

Abstract This paper presents a numerical procedure for evaluating the thermo‐mechanical response of Ultra‐High Performance Concrete (UHPC) beams exposed to fire. The numerical model is based on a macroscopic finite element formulation and utilizes sectional moment‐curvature relations to trace the response of UHPC beams from the linear elastic stage to collapse under combined effects of fire and structural loading. Fire‐induced spalling, temperature‐dependent properties of concrete and steel reinforcement, and realistic failure criteria are incorporated into the analysis. Specifically, an advanced analysis approach for evaluating spalling is incorporated in the model by considering the stresses arising from the combined effects of thermal gradients, structural loading, and pore pressure generated in the concrete section. Comparisons of the predictions from the model with data from fire resistance experiments show a good correlation, indicating the proposed model can reliably predict the thermo‐mechanical response, including the extent of spalling in UHPC beams subjected to fire exposure. The applicability of the model for undertaking advanced analysis is shown by conducting a case study to illustrate the influence of load level and fire scenario on the fire response of the UHPC beams.

Abstract In the case of a fire event, structural components are exposed to a thermal load. To determine the fire resistivity of building components standardized fire resistance tests (FRTs) have to be carried out. Besides the heating and the deformation of building components during the FRT, also the fire response of the adjacent wall construction is important. In the past, the fire response (deformation) of masonry brick and stud walls was examined without building components placed in the wall. However, the thermal expansion of doors and other components is causing a mechanical load on the wall, which is affecting its deformation. Thus, in the present study the deformation of masonry brick walls and gypsum‐sheathed stud walls with fire safety steel doors placed in the walls were determined during FRTs. Furthermore, the effect of the different door types, door size and wall thickness on the wall deformation was evaluated. Single leaf doors were approx. 1.3 m × 2.5 m, while double leaf doors were twice the size. The maximum deformation of the masonry brick walls was between 20 and 40 mm, and was hardly affected by the door type and size. However, larger doors with a higher temperature and thermal expansion showed a slightly increasing deformation. In contrast, stud walls were significantly affected by the door, especially when small doors were used. The wall was deformed up to approx. 100 mm for small doors. Using large doors in the stud wall, the wall deformation was limited to 20 mm.

Abstract This work describes the test methods used in the United States and in Western Europe for regulatory assessments of whether a material can be considered to be a noncombustible material for use in building construction. It also provides the history of the development of such test methods, which is essential for understanding their use in regulation. The work distinguishes between the absolute concept of noncombustibility and the use of the concept in actual practice, for building construction. A key aspect of the work is that it describes both the origin of the pass/fail criteria associated with the test methods in use and their application. The work also describes the type of requirement that is being associated, in codes and regulations, with materials (which are designated limited combustible materials by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and as A2 materials by the European Union) that provide “no significant” contribution to fire hazard. Such materials are often permitted for use in applications where otherwise only noncombustible materials are permitted. The work discusses other proposed methods for assessing noncombustibility, mainly based on heat release, which, although technically sound, have not become adopted for regulation in either the US or Western Europe. The work also discusses pass/fail criteria associated with the major noncombustibility tests, namely those associated with ASTM E136 (in the US) and ISO 1182 (in Western Europe and the maritime world) and the rationale for such criteria.

Abstract Compartment fire is an important research area in fire science and fire safety. Owing to its simplicity, the zone model remains attractive in studying compartment fire. Although computer software packages for the two‐layer zone are in popular use, a basic understanding of the physical phenomena involved and the mathematical formulation thereon would benefit users of the zone model in terms of critical judgement of software outputs, which could be unreasonable, and insight of the general trends of important variables. In general, the differential equations based on a two‐layer zone model have no analytical solutions and numerical methods are required. However, stiffness is present in using numerical methods to solve these differential equations, and reliable results are obtained only when very small time steps are used in computation. Nevertheless, in some special cases, analytical solution for the clear height in the zone model exists, as demonstrated in the present study. Predicted values of smoke layer height in the present approach are shown to be in good agreement with experimental results reported in the literature. The present work would provide insight into the tenability condition of a compartment on fire and is an important issue in fire safety management.

SummaryBased on large eddy simulation, a series of long tunnel fire experiments with different heat release rates (HRRs) and altitudes were carried out. The vertical temperature and thickness of fire smoke are studied. The simulation results show that the higher the altitude, the lower the flame temperature rise, while the change of smoke plume temperature rise is opposite. The movement of smoke in the tunnel can be divided into four regions, and the smoke layer thickness in the longitudinal direction of the tunnel corresponds to the latter three regions. The thickness in Region II increases along the longitudinal direction, the thickness in Region III is a constant value, and the thickness in Region IV increases along the longitudinal direction. Besides, the change of altitude only has an effect on the smoke layer thickness in Region IV. Then, by considering the altitude, HRR, and smoke layer thickness, and using dimensional analysis, an empirical formula for predicting the smoke layer thickness under the influence of altitude in Region IV was established.

SummaryObviously, the use of insulation materials from renewable resources in buildings could provide benefits regarding environmental protection and sustainable management. Nevertheless, their market share in Germany is estimated to be about 7% because of a partial lack of knowledge about their properties, and therefore, of construction certifications. This work was intended to close a knowledge gap concerning emissions during pyrolysis, smoldering, and combustion of commercial insulating materials made from wood, cellulose, meadow grass, hemp, jute, cork, and seaweed as well as polystyrene for comparison reasons. Laboratory‐scale experiments were conducted and the measurement of thermal decomposition products was done with gas chromatography combined with mass spectrometry (GC/MS). It was realized that almost all the products could be assigned to the following eight substance classes: carbohydrates, aldehydes/ketones, carbonic acids/esters, substituted phenols, furans, aliphatic hydrocarbons, substituted benzenes, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Substance spectra were generated that showed certain conformities, especially between the insulating materials made from wood, cellulose, and meadow grass as well as hemp and jute. Comparisons of the sum of peak areas in the GC/MS‐chromatograms provided indications of the relative extent of thermal decomposition product emissions. Calculations according to (∑peak areas renewable material)/(∑peak areas polystyrene) revealed factors between 0.18 (wood, cork) and 0.028 (meadow grass). In the thermal emissions, defined hazardous substances or substance groups were frequently measured. These were included in a toxicity evaluation by which, inter alia, advantages of the natural products compared to polystyrene could be demonstrated.