Introduction Immersive virtual reality (iVR) offers a multisensory environment for education, yet the integration of olfaction remains underexplored. This study examined whether incorporating ambient olfactory stimuli into an iVR environment enhances foreign language vocabulary retention and the user’s sense of presence. Methods A between-subjects experiment was conducted with 59 participants who learned German vocabulary in a virtual airport scenario. Participants were assigned to one of five ambient olfactory conditions systematically selected to represent distinct quadrants of the circumplex model of affect: no scent (control), spearmint (pleasant-arousing), lavender (pleasant-calming), burning wood (unpleasant-arousing), or sewage (unpleasant-calming). Vocabulary retention was measured using matching pre- and post-tests, while subjective presence was assessed using the standardised Igroup Presence Questionnaire (IPQp). Results The results indicated that ambient olfactory stimulation, regardless of affective valence or arousal level, did not significantly improve immediate vocabulary retention compared to the control condition. However, scent did impact the subjective experience of presence; notably, an unpleasant, high-arousal scent (burning wood) served as a distraction, significantly reducing perceived spatial presence. Discussion These findings establish an important boundary condition for multisensory educational VR. They demonstrate that the simple addition of ambient, affective scents as a background stimulus is insufficient to drive immediate cognitive learning gains, and may even detract from immersion if unpleasant. Multisensory iVR design must be guided by pedagogical priorities rather than novelty alone, suggesting that relying solely on ambient emotional modulation via olfaction is not a viable strategy for complex cognitive tasks.

Introduction Public speaking (PS) is a widespread activity required in many personal and professional settings. This activity is known to elicit anxiety, subsequently affecting oral communication, especially voice and speech parameters. As mastering PS skills requires practice in situations that are as similar as possible to reality, virtual reality (VR) may represent a promising method for research, training and intervention in this domain. However, it is of paramount importance to first validate VR environments in their ability to reproduce authentic anxiety responses and communicative behaviors, which are often overlooked. Methods Therefore, this study examined university students (N = 60) anxiety responses (self-reported and heart rate) as well as voice and fluency adjustments to a PS task performed either in (1) a real meeting room in front of an audience, (2) a virtual meeting room in front of an audience, and (3) the same virtual meeting room without any audience. As this last condition contained no anxious stimulus, it was included to act as a control for the anxiety induced by VR immersion. The main objective of this study was to examine the influence of the real vs. virtual nature of the audience on anxiety, voice and fluency parameters. Results Our results showed that the virtual audience elicited changes in anticipatory anxiety (increased heart rate and self-reported anxiety) compared to the control condition. The participant’s strong feeling of presence and lack of side effects such as cybersickness support the acceptability and usability of the virtual environment. Discussion Our results extend previous data and support the feasibility and relevance of using VR for PS. Additionally, we describe different VR immersion profiles among participants.

Introduction Virtual reality has established itself as an effective tool for analyzing user experience and simulating everyday activities. However, there are still many questions remaining, such as how the type of movement in immersive environments influences this experience. The present study evaluated these variables in a virtual supermarket developed for Oculus Quest 2, with the aim of comparing the perceptual and cognitive experience under two navigation modalities: locomotion and joystick. Methods Twenty-two young adults (18–32 years old) participated in both groups. Usability (SUS), presence (PQ), everyday memory (PRMQ), and cybersickness (CSQ-VR) questionnaires were administered, all with moderate and high reliability (α = 0.685–0.912). Results The results showed high levels of usability in both conditions (SUS ≥79), with no statistically significant differences between navigation modes (p = 0.521). Natural presence was significantly higher in locomotion mode (6.17 vs. 5.47); however, this result should be interpreted with caution, as it was derived from exploratory subscale-level analyses (p = 0.038). Cybersickness symptoms remained low (p > 0.05). A very strong positive correlation was also observed between usability and presence in the joystick group (ρ = 0.902; p < 0.001), indicating that interaction fluidity enhances immersion. Discussion Both modes were ergonomic and safe, although with distinct profiles: physical locomotion increased perceptual naturalness, while the joystick reinforced the relationship between ease of use and immersion. These findings provide empirical evidence on how movement modulates the immersive experience and propose an experimental model, with implications for the design of virtual environments applicable to different populations in the future.

The human sense of self is plastic and can be modulated by multisensory and sensorimotor coupling in immersive virtual reality. In particular, synchronous visuo-tactile stimulation and visuo-motor coupling via first-person control are widely used to induce embodiment. However, when these two streams promote different candidate self-locations, their relative contributions to the perceived self-location remain unclear. In this study, we examined perceived self-location using a robot-mediated self-touch paradigm that creates a cue conflict: synchronous visuo-tactile stimulation in this paradigm tends to bias self-location toward the participant’s physical body, whereas visuo-motor coupling via first-person control tends to bias self-location toward a remote robot viewpoint. We compared this conflict condition with control conditions in which either the visuo-tactile or visuo-motor stimulation was attenuated. Perceived self-location was assessed using questionnaire ratings and a behavioral estimate, namely, the Self-Location EstimatEd Pointing (SLEEP), which estimates participants’ perceived self-location using a finger-pointing task in a 360 degree image. Overall, the results are consistent with a stronger contribution of synchronous visuo-tactile stimulation than visuo-motor coupling to perceived self-location in this whole-body embodiment setting.

Binary reverse engineering (RE) is critical for many use cases but is cognitively demanding, suffering from compounded uncertainty and lack of full automation. We survey and synthesize interdisciplinary research in cognitive systems engineering, reverse engineering, and immersive analytics to explore how virtual reality (VR) can be applied to better support human cognition for the binary RE task. We identify relevant work using a hybrid literature review process consisting of targeted database searches and thematic synthesis. Our survey includes relevant work in cognitive/mental models of RE, related cognitive theories (such as embodied cognition and cognitive load), and affordances in VR tied to those theories. We synthesize the survey findings to identify several conceptual threads spanning the three surveyed areas and cluster those threads into three overarching themes: enhancing abductive iteration, augmenting working memory, and supporting information organization. Each of these themes yields a recommended set of affordances in VR to prioritize in system design and future research. Our work bridges cognitive theory with immersive technology, providing a foundation for innovative reverse engineering environments and similar analytical use cases.

With the development of computer technology, the digitization of traditional painting has accelerated. Artificial intelligence–generated content (AIGC) and virtual reality (VR) are reshaping the production, dissemination, and aesthetic experience of traditional art, yet a systematic understanding of how they interact with core artistic principles—such as brush–ink logic, spatial conception, and aesthetic intentionality—remains limited. Adopting a systematic and thematic review approach, this paper examines: (1) the technological, aesthetic, and cultural dimensions of digital transformation, showing how digital change extends beyond medium substitution to shifts in viewing logic and meaning construction; (2) how AIGC advances brushstroke simulation, style transfer, and artistic conception but continues to struggle with deeper principles such as spiritual vitality and intention-before-brush; and (3) how VR reconstructs spatial logic and viewing modes in classical painting, revealing tensions between embodied immersion and traditional contemplative, multi-perspective viewing. Drawing on 32 representative studies, this review synthesizes developments in GAN- and diffusion-based generative models as well as VR-based reconstruction and exhibition methods. While AIGC and VR broaden participation by enabling technically trained researchers to engage with traditional culture, the literature also indicates a persistent risk of reproducing surface stylistic features while overlooking essential cultural and spiritual connotations. The paper concludes by identifying key conceptual gaps and proposing future research directions, including mechanism-level modeling of brush-and-ink aesthetics, VR presentation strategies aligned with scattered perspective, and culturally grounded frameworks for human–machine co-creation.

Evaluating industrial safety training in high-risk environments remains a methodological challenge, especially in sectors such as construction and mining, where the reliable measurement of knowledge transfer and behavioral change is limited. This study aims to identify the key attributes required for a model that leverages immersive technologies to evaluate safety training in high-risk scenarios, thereby advancing occupational safety research and informing the design of industrial training programs. A PRISMA-guided systematic review of 37 peer-reviewed studies (2021–2025) was conducted across Scopus, ScienceDirect and Web of Science, ensuring transparency and reproducibility. The analysis identified methodological patterns, technological features and research gaps. Most studies addressed immediate outcomes (reaction and learning, corresponding to Levels 1 and 2 of Kirkpatrick’s model), while evidence on behavioral change (Level 3) and organizational impact (Level 4) is scarce. Evaluation strategies are also fragmented, with a predominance of self-report questionnaires and limited use of biometric or performance-based metrics. Emerging approaches combine multimodal Human Action Recognition (HAR), biometric sensing (eye-tracking, EEG, heart rate), and behavioral analytics to enable real-time, performance-based assessment. Adaptive, AI-driven and gamified environments are also gaining relevance, by combining biometric feedback with behavioral data to detect and interpret user actions in real time. By consolidating these attributes, this review delineates the essential components of an immersive evaluation framework that advances methodological rigor and supports safer, human-centered industrial training aligned with Industry 4.0 and Society 5.0. Systematic Review Registration https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/EKWZ9 .

Introduction Head-mounted displays (HMDs) are central to virtual and augmented reality (VR/AR) experiences, yet their reliance on head movement for interaction imposes physical demands on the neck. While neck pain is already a prevalent musculoskeletal issue, neck muscle activity during HMD usage remains poorly understood. Methods In this paper, we present the first empirical study of neck muscle activity during head fixation in a seated VR pointing task. Using surface electromyography, we measured muscle activity across 67 head poses in 15 participants. Results Our findings describe how neck muscle workload increases with rotation angle, is asymmetric across directions, and exhibits distinct temporal dynamics depending on head rotation angle. We contribute an open dataset and a detailed characterisation of neck muscle activity during prolonged head fixation, providing a physiological baseline for future research on the ergonomics of immersive technologies. Discussion Our findings highlight how specific head orientations and fixation durations differentially load the neck musculature, offering the basis for a physiological explanation for discomfort during prolonged VR use and establishing a baseline for future ergonomic assessments.

Introduction Speech recognition in noisy, reverberant environments is challenging, particularly with aging. Subtle spatial auditory deficits emerging in midlife may precede measurable hearing loss and impair communication. Real-world studies face challenges in control and replication, whereas virtual reality (VR) simulations offer an alternative. This study examines how age and noise location influence speech recognition in virtual reverberant environments. Methods Sixty normal-hearing adults participated: 30 young (18–40 years, M = 25.19, SD = 5.23) and 30 middle-aged (41–60 years, M = 55.79, SD = 4.57). Participants completed sentence recognition tasks in virtual acoustic simulations with three reverberation levels (anechoic, short: 0.8 s, long: 3.0 s) and three noise locations (0°, 60° right, 60° left). Sentences were presented at 0° amidst spatial noise. A generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) analyzed sentence recognition scores, with fixed effects for age, reverberation, and noise location, and random effects for participant variability. Results GLMM results showed middle-aged adults had poorer sentence recognition than young adults (p < 0.05). Both groups exhibited SRM in anechoic and short reverberation conditions, but middle-aged adults showed no spatial release from masking in long reverberation. Significant age-reverberation interactions indicated greater deficits in middle-aged adults under challenging acoustics. Discussion Findings suggest that middle-aged adults may experience subtle speech perception difficulties in noisy and reverberant environments, even with clinically normal hearing. However, generalization to hearing-impaired populations remains limited.

Virtual reality head-mounted displays (VR-HMDs) can induce cybersickness symptoms, including nausea, dizziness, and disorientation, due to sensory conflicts between visual and vestibular inputs. This study investigated the effects of cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on cybersickness symptoms and cortical activity during VR experiences. Twenty healthy adults were randomly assigned to either the cathodal tDCS group (n = 10) or the sham stimulation group (n = 10). Participants underwent VR rollercoaster exposure while cortical activity was measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) before and after 20 min of 2 mA cathodal tDCS applied over the right temporoparietal junction (TPJ). Cybersickness symptoms were assessed using the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ). Results showed that cathodal tDCS significantly reduced nausea-related cybersickness symptoms compared to sham stimulation ( p < 0.05). fNIRS analysis revealed decreased oxyhemoglobin concentrations in the bilateral superior parietal lobule and angular gyrus following cathodal tDCS, indicating reduced cortical activity in these regions. Between-group comparisons confirmed greater reductions in cortical activity in the right TPJ regions for the cathodal group than for the sham group. These findings suggest that cathodal tDCS over the right TPJ can effectively mitigate cybersickness by modulating cortical activity in brain regions associated with multisensory integration and vestibular processing.