Aims: The West African Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) outbreak of 2014-2016 was the most disastrous EVD epidemic in history. We aimed to investigate and provide unique theoretical insights which could help inform future responses to EVD outbreaks. Methods: After searching five key databases in May 2021 and February 2022 (Medline, Embase, PubMed, Scopus and Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL)), 412 papers were collected. Following abstract and full text screening, 35 papers were identified for inclusion. Coded data was synthesised in accordance with the protocol set out by Thomas and Hardon. Findings: Regarding geographical context, most fieldwork underpinning included studies was conducted within Western Urban Area in Sierra Leone, suggesting that some geographical discrepancy exists within the literature base. In terms of quality, some issues were identified regarding researcher reflexivity, ethical procedures and data analysis. Following thematic synthesis, it was found that beliefs and/or practices relating to distrust, fear, socio-cultural considerations and denial hindered engagement with control measures. By contrast, experiencing the virus first-hand and engaging with survivors prompted the uptake of such measures. Building from these findings, we then proposed an amendment to Barry Hewlett’s Evolutionary Cultural Anthropology (ECA) framework, shedding light on the determinants of such beliefs and/or practices. Conclusion: Our review provides a systematic mapping of which beliefs and/or practices either promoted or hindered response efforts during the outbreak as well as an authentic and holistic way of understanding why such beliefs and/or practices emerged, by synthesising Hewlett’s ECA framework with our findings. By drawing from our cross contextual analysis, health professionals throughout West Africa and beyond could use this work in further reflecting on and guiding the implementation of control measures prior or during future EVD outbreaks.

This Watching Brief details a foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) outbreak in livestock in Indonesia. The outbreak, first reported in May 2022, is causing significant socioeconomic, animal health and biosecurity concerns in a country that has been FMD-free without vaccination since 1986. Delayed index case notification, difficulties with vaccination (e.g. accessibility issues, waning vaccine immunity and lack of cross-protection), limited understanding of persistent infection in carrier animals and lengthy restocking processes all present challenges for Indonesia in containing and recovering from this FMD outbreak. Thus, despite extensive research, the disease continues to present substantial challenges for outbreak prevention, surveillance and containment, which have important implications considering the widespread global prevalence of FMD and its impact on agriculture and trade in many countries. The socioeconomic burden of the current outbreak in Indonesia on individuals, households and communities is devastating, particularly in poor and rural areas. These impacts will likely continue after the outbreak is over, highlighting the need for co-ordinated support in strengthening outbreak detection and control in FMD-affected and other vulnerable areas.

An outbreak of pneumonia of unknown origin was identified in a health facility in Tucumán, Argentina in August 2022. Initial laboratory testing has suggested Legionella pneumophila and Legionella spp. as the causative agent of this pneumonia cluster. However, confirmation of these early results is ongoing and requires identification of the bacteria in environmental samples, matching of environmental samples to patient samples and wider testing of those affected by the outbreak. Official identification of a Legionnaires’ disease outbreak faces many challenges including limited diagnostic capabilities in local laboratories, reduced sensitivity of available tests and inadequate clinical samples. In the absence of official identification of the source of the outbreak, other differential diagnoses for pneumonia should not be overlooked as this may result in missed cases and inadequate control measures being implemented.

The term “Tomato Flu” or “Tomato Fever” is the colloquial term in India used to describe multiple diseases that present with a fever and rash, with characteristic red, “tomato” shaped blister that appears on different parts of the body, which begin small and increase in size as disease progresses. Some controversy exists on this ‘new viral “flu” that emerged in May 2022 over a period of 2 weeks in areas in the south of India. Currently, local healthcare workers have been encouraged to address the disease as a variant of Hand Foot and Mouth Disease to avoid unnecessary panic on the emergence of a “new outbreak”. With the circulation of other viruses, inadequate testing and poor-quality surveillance in a low resource setting, where healthcare systems are already burdened with ongoing monkeypox outbreak and COVID-19 pandemic, the use of colloquial terms may cause unnecessary panic in the current hypervigilant climate. Confirmation from Government is required to confirm whether this outbreak is due to a mixed infection or a variant of the highly infectious Hand Foot and Mouth Disease virus.

In August 2022, a research study in China reported the emergence of Langya henipavirus (LayV), a novel zoonotic henipavirus. LayV had infected 35 people in Shandong and Henan provinces between 2018 – 2021, with shrews suspected to be the natural reservoir host. There has been great public interest in LayV as an emerging zoonosis, given the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, as well as its relatedness to Hendra virus and Nipah virus, other zoonotic henipaviruses capable of severe human and animal health impacts. Though cases appeared sporadic and mostly mild with lack of evident connection, further investigations are needed to understand the potential public health impacts of LayV. Given LayV’s ability to infect humans, and currently limited available information, the gathering of additional data regarding ecological, geographical, temporal and anthropogenic factors could help researchers better understand its emergence and transmission. Many questions have arisen regarding LayV, such as the role that shrews may play in transmission, the possibility of human-to-human transmission, the environmental factors that may have influenced the emergence of LayV, potential disease severity especially in critically ill patients, and whether additional cases have occurred outside the study. Such considerations warrant ongoing and expanded surveillance efforts within and beyond China to further understand the transmission and pathogenesis mechanisms of LayV infection.

Lassa fever is a viral haemorraghic fever, accounting for about 5,000-10,000 deaths annually. The disease is endemic in West-Africa with seasonal epidemics. We proposed that with the use of mathematical modelling studies, we can predict accurately when the outbreak will likely occur by computing the infectivity rate, weather patterns and population of rodents. With this, adequate preventive measures and public health control interventions can be put in place to prevent the outbreak. This necessitates the need for more policy-relevant mathematical modelling studies on Lassa Fever, starting with building capacity in sub-Saharan Africa, where the disease is prevalent.

In February and March 2022, an outbreak of Japanese Encephalitis Virus (JEV) was detected in piggeries in southern Queensland, NSW, Victoria and South Australia. Subsequently, human cases of JEV have been confirmed in each of the affected states, with 35 confirmed or probable cases and 3 deaths as of 7 April 2022. This is the first JEV outbreak in mainland Australia. JEV has not been detected in mosquitos, animals or humans in south-Eastern Australia previously and question remain about how it became established, and whether it will become endemic to this region. The majority of cases are occurring around the affected piggeries where there is exposure to mosquitoes, particularly in the older age group, and vaccination has commenced in this population.

In Pakistan, the first confirmed case of COVID-19 was reported on 26 February 2020, having the travel history from Iran. Islamabad and Rawalpindi have also been affected by COVID-19 epidemic. On 23 March 2020, the Government of Pakistan has declared smart lockdown all over the country including Islamabad and Rawalpindi. The aim of the study was to identify the status of the knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding COVID-19 among the general population of the twin cities (Islamabad and Rawalpindi) in Pakistan during the COVID-19 outbreak. A cross-sectional web-based survey was conducted from 5 to 19 May 2020, the week during smart lockdown in Islamabad and Rawalpindi. Demographic characteristics were compared with independent-samples t-test, one-way, or Chi-square test. Multivariable linear regression analysis was used to identify factors associated with low knowledge score. Data analyses were conducted with SPSS version 21.0. A total of 1,282 participants completed the questionnaire. Among this final sample, the average age was 30.65 years. Among the survey respondents, 680 (53%) were women, 1096 (86%) held a bachelor’s degree or above, 634 (50%) were engaged with the government and private sector and 606 (47%) were married. The overall correct rate of knowledge was 70%. The majority of the respondents agreed that COVID-19 will finally be successfully controlled (59%). Most of the participants had not visited any crowded place (74%) and 95% responded that they have reduced their outdoor activities. In response to precaution measures, 86% stated that they would isolate themselves if they ever felt a fever or cough. The study findings suggest that residents of the two cities have reasonable levels of knowledge on COVID-19. However, it is necessary to launch health education and awareness campaigns to improve the knowledge and practices about COVID-19, to control its transmission.

Covid 19 / Omicron has is causing high levels of absenteeism among the workforce. While the impact on the supply chain is being acknowledged, risks to the stability of critical infrastructure systems are not. The mutual inter-dependencies of complex systems such as power, transport and internet need to be better understood.

Covid-19 has affected many countries globally. Many countries have started vaccinating populations to curb the spread of COVID-19. The Ministries of Health and not-for-profit organizations in African countries have been responsive towards providing their citizens with evidence related to the COVID-19 vaccine. However, vaccine hesitancy continues to threaten the achievement of the required herd immunity to reduce the burden of the disease for many countries. Therefore, interventions to build COVID-19 vaccine trust among populations are critical. Firstly, the engagement of community stakeholders and social influencers is important to address misconceptions about vaccines and debunk social media misinformation. Secondly, information on the COVID-19 vaccine should be simplified for all groups of the population, to ensure that people are not deprived of access to health information and the opportunity to receive the COVID-19 vaccine. This article aimed to describe COVID-19 vaccine acceptance rates, causes, effects, and strategies for improving COVID-19 vaccine uptake in selected countries in Africa.