Abstract Ketone monoester (KME) supplementation has been suggested to preserve or enhance cognitive performance, but its effects across cognitive domains during non-exhaustive exercise remain unclear. We aimed to investigate whether KME improves cognitive performance during moderate-intensity exercise in healthy young men. In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study, 9 recreationally active healthy males (mean ± SD: age: 26 ± 5 year, V̇O 2max : 47 ± 4 mL·kg −1 ·min −1 ) completed two experimental trials involving 90 min of cycling at 60% V̇O 2max . Participants consumed either KME or tasted-matched placebo (PLA) drinks around exercise (total 0.75 g·kg −1 ). A comprehensive cognitive test battery (CTB) of validated tests assessed memory, attention, inhibitory control, and visual processing before and after exercise (tests included delayed recall, spatial span, digit span, endogenous and exogenous covert shift of attention, Stroop task, psychomotor vigilance task, global form perception, and global motion perception). Post-exercise blood β-Hydroxybutyrate concentrations were higher in the KME (3.3 ± 0.5 mM) vs. PLA (~ 0.1 ± 0.0 mM; P < 0.01). Only global motion perception showed a time x condition interaction ( P = 0.044), whereby KME rescued the decay observed in PLA. Moderate-intensity exercise of 90 min did not affect other cognitive performance metrics ( P > 0.05) and KME did not enhance cognitive function relative to PLA in any other domain tested ( P > 0.05). KME supplementation during 90-min of moderate-intensity non-exhaustive exercise preserved global motion perception but did not improve other cognitive performance in healthy young males.

Abstract Patients with heart failure are usually affected by cognitive impairment, which is associated with lower adherence to treatments and higher morbidity and mortality. Previous studies in healthy samples showed that cognitive functions were improved after cognitive training up to a very old age. We therefore investigated the effect of a three-week computerized cognitive training on cognitive functions in patients with heart failure. 107 patients with stable heart failure (male = 88%, median age = 69 years, range = 31 to 84 years) participated in the study and were followed up at three and six months. Participants were either randomized to a cognitive training group that trained shifting and working memory, an active control group that trained general knowledge or a waiting list control group. Significant performance gains occurred on the trained tasks for shifting and working memory as well as transfer of these gains to overall cognitive performance, particularly working memory, short-term memory, episodic memory and processing speed. Improvements in overall cognitive performance were stable at three-month follow-up, but not after six months. Cognitive training led to broad and sustained cognitive gains in patients with stable heart failure that may support adherence and reduce morbidity and mortality. These effects need to be further investigated in controlled randomized clinical trials. ClinicalTrials.gov registration Identifier. NCT02415517.

Nootropics, often referred to as “smart drugs,” are substances purported to enhance cognitive functions, particularly executive functions and memory, in healthy individuals. While primarily used by younger adults, there is growing interest in the potential of nootropics to benefit elderly, particularly in the prevention and management of cognitive decline associated with aging. This study aimed to investigate the acute cognitive enhancing effects of a single standardized dose of the dietary nootropic stack CILTEP® (Neurofuel™) in healthy elderly participants. We evaluated the cognitive benefits of a single dose of CILTEP® in 33 healthy elderly participants using a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, two-way cross-over design. To assess various cognitive domains, a comprehensive test battery was employed which included tasks measuring memory performance, attention, and sensorimotor speed. The tests administered were the Verbal Learning Test, the Spatial Pattern Separation Task, the Digit Symbol Substitution Task, the Trail Making Test, the n-Back test, the Simple and Choice Reaction Time Task, and the Stroop Color-Word Task. No relevant effects attributable to acute CILTEP® treatment were observed on any cognitive measures, event-related-potentials (ERPs), or vital functions such as blood pressure and heart rate. The lack of significant cognitive enhancement in healthy elderly participants may suggest that a single acute dosing of CILTEP® is insufficient to exert measurable effects. Further studies are required to explore long-term effects, optimal dosing, and overall efficacy of the nootropic.

Previous studies suggest that the activation of the motor system – either via action, motor imagery, or brain stimulation – may increase subsequent performance on divergent thinking tasks (e.g., the alternate uses task; AUT). We tested this idea in a within-subjects design by administering the AUT using four different target objects and four different 5-min incubation tasks that differed in terms of arm and finger movements. In between-subjects designs, 0-back incubation has been shown to yield more creative responses than rest. Additionally, we included two new incubations that both involved arm actions, but differed in the amount of finger actions (Iranian dance, ballet dance). Incubation tasks involving finger actions (Iranian dance, 0-back) were predicted to increase creativity for objects that are typically manipulated with the fingers. There was a main effect of object. Alternate uses given to the paperclip were rated as more creative than those given to the other objects. With our within-subjects design, we could not replicate the previously described difference between 0-back and rest incubations. However, hypothesis-driven comparisons showed that, although the interaction of object and incubation was not significant, Iranian dance yielded more creative usages for paperclip than for sheet of paper, cup and brick, and all other incubations yielded more creative usages for paperclip than for brick. Iranian dance also generated marginally more creative usages than ballet. Our results suggest that if the hypothesized effects exist, they are likely to be small. Overall, AUT performance seems more influenced by the AUT object than by type of incubation.

This article argues that understanding the primary functions of cognitive processes in our evolutionary past can help to develop effective cognitive enhancement methods. The adaptive problems our ancestors faced forged interconnected cognitive and motor mechanisms supporting various movement-based problem-solving processes. However, the physical and social challenges these cognitive-motor capacities originally evolved to address are no longer prevalent in modern societies. Consequently, many adaptive problem-solving mechanisms linked to a wide range of body movements are often underused and insufficiently developed in modern contexts, contributing to age-related cognitive decline. From this view, and considering current cognitive enhancement techniques such as cognitive training, neurostimulation, physical exercise, and combined cognitive and physical training, the present article introduces an evolutionary-inspired cognitive enhancement framework. This framework advocates for developing strategies and training methods that stimulate our evolved cognitive-motor adaptations. In particular, therapeutic interventions should incorporate adaptive problems and whole-body movement solutions into modern technologies and computer-based tasks.