This article aims at discussing the time and the character (pragmatic or ritual) of disturbances in paired burials of Kozhumberdy cultural group of Late Bronze Alakul´ Culture in the Southern Urals and Western Kazakhstan. Data. The object of the study are Kozhumberdy paired burials, which were deliberately disturbed, including 19 simultaneous and 3 non-simultaneous graves. Results. The simultaneous burials are divided into two groups according to the degree of skeletal impairment. In the first group the remains of both deceased are equally broken; there are 10 of such burials. The skeletal impairment of pelvic and/or femur bones prevail. In the second group the remains of one of the deceased are broken to a greater degree; there are 9 such burials. As a rule, the female bones suffered more: the skull manipulation (removal, breaking) is their characteristic feature. The fact of the presence of vessels in situ in most graves and the accuracy with which the penetration was accomplished may serve as the evidence of the disturbances made by the contemporaries of the buried. There seems to be no pragmatic purpose for such disturbances: the absence of prestigious grave-goods in most undisturbed paired burials may serve as the indirect indication of this fact. This is supported by direct evidence as well because those who disturbed the graves were apparently not interested in the valuable jewelry; it was left in the disturbed part of the grave. Notably, the disturbance of non-simultaneous burials is like that of simultaneous graves: the skeletons are broken down to the pelvic and/or femur bones (1) and the skulls are removed (2). Conclusions. The disturbance of Kozhumberdy paired burials was carried out during post-burial rituals performed by the contemporaries of the deceased.

Introduction. The article deals with the Crimean period (August 1941 – June 1942) in the life of Basan Badminovich Gorodovikov, Hero of the Soviet Union and a major military and political figure of Kalmykia. The present article aims at describing and analyzing this less-known period of his biography, which was significant and full of dramatic events. Data and research methods. For the purposes of this research, the author has used a wide range of archival materials, as well as memoirs of participants of the partisan movement in the Crimea (including unpublished papers). Results. The author describes the first battles in the north of the Crimea in which Gorodovikov’s regiment was engaged; then, its retreat into the mountains and transition to partisans, the creation of a partisan detachment and the actions behind enemy lines. The activities of Gorodovikov’s detachment are shown against the general background of the partisan movement in the Crimea; special attention given to the discussion of warfare under the specific conditions on the peninsula. The article focuses on the role of the military personnel, especially at the first stage of the partisan movement, revealing, among other things, the problems in the relationship between the command staff of the 48th cavalry division and the partisan leaders in the Crimea. For the first time, the article sheds light on the history of awarding Gorodovikov with the Order of the Red Banner, which was the first award of the Crimean partisans. The dramatic story of his evacuation from the partisan forest to the “Bol´shaia zemlia” is also documented in detail; with previously unknown documents and materials introduced in this paper. The undertaken research allows to conclude that the Crimean period in the life of Gorodovikov was one of the most dramatic in his biography. During a difficult period for the Crimea, he became the commander of one of the most successful partisan detachments, which after he left was officially named after him, its first commander. Notably, Gorodovikov was among the first Crimean partisans to be awarded a military order and to get a promotion in rank and in office.

Introduction. The chronological framework of the article includes the period of China’s development in the 1950–1970s, when the strategy of equalizing and balanced spatial development was being implemented; this had a significant impact on the formation of industrial complexes and main production sectors of the PRC. The aim and objectives of this study are to examine the characteristic features of the implementation of the strategy of equalizing and balanced spatial development of the PRC in the 1950–1970s, to identify the main trends in the dynamics of the Chinese regional industry; and to analyze key regional projects, concepts, ideas for the development of the mining and processing industry in China during the period under study. Data and research methods. The article draws on the main sources on the economic history of the PRC, including statistical collections, materials of five-year plans, and collected works of Mao Zedong. Special historical methods such as thematic chronological research method and retrospective method were applied to the study of the data. Results. Deformations in regional industrial transformations during the Great Leap Forward campaign in China (1958–1960); activities since 1964 in preparation to a war, which was being expected at the time; and the period of Cultural Revolution significantly influenced the formation of the system of regional industry in China. In the period under study, the implementation of five-year plans for the socio-economic construction of the Chinese national economy (1953–1957, 1958–1962, 1966–1970, 1971–1975, 1976–1980); the formation of regional zones for economic cooperation; the implementation of the objectives for regional «three lines» transformations; and an active scientific-technological and financial assistance of the Soviet Union laid the foundations, fostered further development and modernization of regional industries in China, such as electric power industry, metallurgy, production of building materials, mechanical engineering and metalworking, fuel and chemical industries. Conclusions. For the first time in the history of China, the period of equalizing and balanced regional development of the PRC saw the implementation of measures designed to narrow the gaps in the development of inland and coastal regions; these would help to solve the problems of the country’s reconstruction within the framework of industrialization of the PRC at large.

Introduction. The article examines intra-family relations in Bashkir society in the mid-19th to early 20th centuries. Goals. The work aims at outlining the characteristics and new phenomena in Bashkir intra-family relations during the period under consideration. Materials and Methods. The main sources are archival documentary materials and published sources. The analysis of the source material, the assessment of events and phenomena were implemented through the principles of historicism, objectivity and scientific nature. The study employs such methods as comparative historical, problem-chronological, retrospective, logical ones, etc. Results. On the basis of unique sources, such as archival documents, published sources, works by famous Russian scientists, public figures and local historians, the paper provides insight into the family life of Bashkirs in this period — with due account of turning events in Russia’s social life and its actual phenomena. The latter initiated certain changes in this sphere and had a serious impact on intra-family relations, positions of family members. That especially affected the status of women which has also been highlighted in published scientific and local history works. Changes took place in the woman herself, in her self-awareness and behavior, radically different from the established norms. This is evidenced by the increased number of cases when women turned to the Orenburg Mohammedan Spiritual Association with requests for divorce, permission for a new marriage, with complaints against their husbands, as well as by the emergence of women’s societies which became first experience of their self-organization outside homes and that of social life. However, family was still dominated by man, and other members remained as humiliated and dependent. All this attests to the strength of traditional intra-family relations. Conclusions. During the period under review, Bashkir intra-family relations remained virtually unchanged. Nonetheless, the events that took place in the early 20th century in Russia’s social life resulted in that positions of family and its members became noticeably complicated and unstable. The position of woman in family was undergoing serious changes as well: it became different, like the traditional Bashkir society itself.

Introduction. The article deals with the k-pop cover dance direction as one of the movements globalizing the youth environment. Nowadays, the K-pop youth subculture has reached a significant number of teenage schoolchildren with its popularity. Currently, belonging to the K-pop subculture and its dance practices are becoming integral to creating new global identities for young people. Goals. The study aims to examine the richness of K-pop components through dance culture, especially popular among school-age teenagers. Materials. The work primarily analyzes the author’s field materials with the aid of the structural/functional method, that of included observation, as well as interviews (narrative, semi-structured) with respondents. Results and Conclusions. The paper concludes that Kalmyk K-pop fans form a bi-ethnic identity in which a combination of features of both — their own and other ethnic cultures — is equally manifested. At the same time, K-pop cover dance proves the most accessible way to get socialized and develop imagination (i.e., a leisure-time activity) in present-day youth culture.

Introduction. At present, people’s interest in the historical and ethnocultural heritage has increased, and the desire to preserve traditional values for future generations has grown stronger. Song recordings made in the 19th – 20th centuries are evidence of the developed musical and song tradition of the Bashkir people. Due to the collecting efforts of M. A. Burangulov, A. N. Kireev, S. A. Galin, N. D. Shunkarov and others, a whole layer of folk songs has been preserved. During expeditions that have been intensified since the beginning of the 21st century by the Institute of History, Language and Literature of the Ufa Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, folklorists are working hard to multifacetedly cataloguize folk knowledge, on the basis of which one can judge the state of traditional modern folklore of the Bashkirs. In our understanding, ‘modern folklore’ is folklore that has existed since the middle of the 20th century to the present, regardless of the environment of existence. Goals. This work aims to consider the genres of traditional musical folklore of the Bashkirs that have survived today, to give a brief description of them, and also to analyze them from the viewpoint of assessing the modern spiritual state of the ethnos. Unlike other genres, musical genres are well preserved in the memory of the population. It is the song and takmaks that are the main genres of modern Bashkir oral and poetic creativity, which makes it possible to reveal the dynamics of the development of folklore. Materials and Methods. The research is based on the author’s expedition materials collected in the 21st century in different regions of the Republic of Bashkortostan and beyond, where the Bashkirs live compactly. They retain collective axiological attitudes and serve as a way of expressing shared emotions. These genres have a high level of demand among the population and therefore quantitatively prevail in expedition records. Folk songs are kept in the memory of people — bearers of folk musical culture, and are not recorded by them in writing. The transmission of musical and folklore works occurs orally. This means that any folk song is perceived and absorbed by each new generation by ear directly at the moment of sounding. Occasionally, songs can be recorded along with their stories and legends. The availability of songwriting histories is a characteristic feature of Bashkir folk songs. Many songs lose their names over time, but they do not completely disappear from the memory of the people, as evidenced by the comments of informants characterizing these works in expressions, such as ‘my mother’s song’, ‘this song was performed by my father’, etc. This phenomenon reflects the strong cultural connection between generations, when performers with special trepidation cherish the memory of their relatives and can reproduce the tune once performed by their father or mother. Along with drawling songs, short four-line songs without a title, drinking songs and takmaks are also common. Takmaks, in turn, are distributed not only orally but also in writing. Modern takmaks are distinguished by great mobility and efficiency, they instantly respond to urgent problems. In the light of recent events, takmaks have appeared on the topic of a pandemic, self-isolation, and online training. Results. A review of folklore materials collected in recent decades shows that the musical genres of Bashkir folklore continue to exist, which means that it is necessary to study not only the current state of the Bashkir song heritage but also its evolution. The folk song, folk singing traditions must be passed on to the younger generation, and only then the folk culture will develop and be preserved for future generations.

Introduction. Accelerated development of the Far East has been — and still is — one of the main priorities of Russia’s regional policy in the 2010s. The cities and urban agglomerations of the region are proclaimed by the Russian government as key basic points of further economic growth in this part of the country. At the same time, despite the efforts of the federal and regional authorities, the processes of urbanization in most regions of the Far East are still in crisis. Goals. The study aims to analyze the results of the Soviet urbanization in Amur Oblast and the dynamics of urbanization processes in the region over the past three decades. Materials and Methods. Analyzing official statistical data, as well as statutory instruments at the national, regional and local levels, the paper uses a set of general scientific methods, the statistical method, and special methods of historical research, in particular, the problem-chronological one. Results. The entire system of urban settlements in Amur Oblast experienced a dramatic socioeconomic, infrastructural and demographic crisis in the 1990-2010s. Even the first half of the 1990s witnessed a weakening of urbanization processes and an outflow of population from the region caused by the restructuring and crisis of production, the weakening of state social policy, a decrease in investments in the engineering and household development of territories, and insufficient solution of housing problems. In the structure of urban settlements, the greatest changes have affected workmen’s settlements most of which have lost the prospects for industrial development. In the early 2010s, the development of urban settlements in the region was still constrained by a number of economic factors (the regional budget deficit and its dependence on federal subsidies, the ongoing production crisis of most of the city-forming enterprises, etc.). Large infrastructure projects in the region (construction of the Vostochny Cosmodrome, Power of Siberia gas pipeline, Eastern Siberia–Pacific Ocean oil pipeline, creation of advanced development areas) have supported urban settlements of the region’s industrial center in the 2010s. However, cities and towns in the north of the region have not received tangible sources of growth as a result of the Baikal–Amur Mainline project crisis. Conclusions. By the end of the 2010s, the general crisis of urbanization processes in the region resulted in that the network of urban settlements acquired more linear features — along the Trans-Siberian railway line — that be accompanied by concentrate resettlement towards Blagoveshchensk.

Introduction. The article analyzes tax apportionment for Kalmyk population in the 19th century through examining aimak-level (Kalm. ‘locality, settlement’) data. Goals. The study mainly aims at identification of categories of taxes adopted at the aimak level, determination of the tax apportionment mechanism, analysis of average amounts of taxes across different aimaks. Materials. The analyzed documents include reports of 1882 on taxes from southern aimaks of Baga Dorbet (Russ. Maloderbetovsky) Ulus housed by the National Archive of the Kalmykia (Coll. И-15). Results. Apportionment, i.e. a financial method which assumes distribution of the total amount of a certain type of income for a set of taxable objects, was officially adopted by Kalmyks in the second half of the 19th century. The materials show the form in which it was used by the Kalmyks on the eve of the obligatory relationships’ cancellation, i.e. in the 1880s. Kalmyk commoners paid both official and non-official taxes — in terms of the Regulations introduced by the Imperial Court for the Kalmyk People’s Directorate. The non-official ones included ‘dark’ and household fees, as well as a ‘public needs’ fee, which, in our view, went to ulus-level budgets. The period under study witnessed the application of the apportionment principle (guideline) to the entire amount of taxes. Aimak meetings decided which families would not pay taxes to further divide the entire amount into two parts: the first one was apportioned for a certain number of heads of cattle, while the other was paid by each truly dutiable family at a rate set by the meeting. There was a rather tangible difference between aimaks in the average values of taxes per family. This indicator depended mainly on the share of tax-exempt families and the specific value of ‘unofficial’ taxes in the aimak.

Introduction. The article newly examines regional mass media materials of the 2010s for current problems of Buryat language preservation, the latter being an important element of Buryatia’s ethnocultural processes. The term ‘ethnocultural processes’ is understood as a part of contemporary Buryat history, a true expression to denote the development of nation building ideas, including ones related to native language preservation. Materials. The paper considers a number of issues, namely: the need for universal language learning, activities by the Buddhist Traditional Sangha of Russia (BTSR), efficiency of application of federal budget subsidies, literary language and dialects, etc. The reliable media sources confirmed by field and literary materials attest to that ethnocultural processes in Buryatia pertaining to the preservation of the regional titular nation’s language remain relevant throughout the post-Soviet era. Results. The Government’s measures (often essentially formal), initiatives of public organizations (primarily those by BTSR) do contribute to the preservation of the language at a certain level, but yield no transformative results — the share of fluent speakers decreases, which is also caused by the succession of generations. The extremities of obliging all pupils to learn the language are not that harmless and can lead to an imbalance in interethnic relations in the region. Other alarming trends discussed are as follows: the use of the topic for speculative declarations by certain groups and as a background for manifestations of tribalistic attitudes, struggles for subsidies, etc. For the bulk of the population, including some Buryats, language preservation through compulsory schooling is undesirable for its low teaching efficiency and lack of usage prospects determined by insufficient demand in society. Conclusions. The discussion initiated by the mass media forced government agencies of the republic to continue the former at round tables with the participation of officials, scientists, and the public. That resulted in certain positive results, namely: efforts of BTSR were objectively assessed as efficient, and the need to study dialects and subdialects along with the literary language was recognized, the latter establishing a certain consensus between the parties, which shall possibly promote the ethnocultural processes to a new level.

Introduction. Research on Buryat and Kalmyk pilgrimage to Buddhist worshiping sites in Tibet and wider in Inner Asia at the late imperial period mostly focuses on biographies and travel writings of Buddhist clergy, while experience of ordinary pilgrims ― especially of the lay people (Mong. khara khün) who were actors of this social phenomena ― received limited attention. However, some of the Buryat ‘oral histories’ about long distance travels to Tibet were recorded later by Buryat intellectuals (e. g., B. B. Baradiin) to name but a few. Goals. The article aims to introduce one such record made in 1968 by a rural community school teacher and amateur historian B. B. Namsaraev. Results. The latter wrote down a life story (Mong. namtar) of Bato Badmaev, an elder from the village of Suduntui, about his pilgrimage to Tibet between 1901 and 1904. This travelogue by a lay person presents unique first-hand observations about hardships of the long distance foot pilgrimage to worshiping places in Urga, Amdo and Tibet ― a wide social phenomenon among Buryats at the beginning of the 20th century. This ‘oral history’ together with extensive information about infrastructure along the pilgrim routes (Mongolian and Tibetan families hosting pilgrims and providing meals to them, travel tips they shared of how to pass the most dangerous hostile deserts and mountain passes, encountering a yeti snowman (Mong. almaz), etc.) contain emotional remarks about things experienced and bodily hardships pilgrims faced (thirst, physical exhaustion, extreme temperatures, and so on) ― aspects which are not covered in travelogues of Buddhist clergy and professional explorers (e. g., merchants, military specialists) who were in much more privileged travel conditions hiring horses and camels to carry their goods and belongings. Therefore, the recent publication (2012) of this unique travelogue made it more accessible and available to a wider audience.