ABSTRACT Socialist Yugoslavian, and subsequently Croatian, architects' experiences of practicing in African countries has been generally viewed as a one-way, southwards oriented process. However, a feedback loop developed latently by expanding the professional experience of architects. This enriched their profile either as authors or managers. Paralleling processes which have been observed to have occurred in international relations over the period in question, those architects acquired the status of 'experts,' and companies gained firm positions on the international market. Relevant international experience was thus transferred northwards, enabling new professional trajectories to evolve. Instead of being oriented exclusively at foreign territories, their intertwining contributed to the establishment of international projects in Yugoslavia as well. The UN funded projects, implemented in Yugoslavia at the time can be seen here as a key example. This article therefore addresses the professional development acquired in West Africa at the beginning of the 1960s, that would later habilitate Croatian architects for placement in the field of their further international expertise. In doing so, two case studies about bilateral technical cooperation in Ghana and Guinea are examined. Finally, the article reveals the tacit layers of effects prompted by work in Africa, within the architectural practices in socialist Croatia.

ABSTRACT This article critically analyzes the spatial design origins of the University of Tehran, Iran’s first modern campus, and challenges the prevailing assumption that it derived primarily from French Beaux-Arts traditions. Designed by graduates of the École des Beaux-Arts, the University’s master plan and buildings have long been regarded as products of French architectural influence. Drawing on historical documents related to the University of Tehran and spatial models of European universities from the 19th and early 20th centuries, this interpretation is reassessed. While Beaux-Arts stylistic features and minor influences from other European models are evident, almost no comparable campus master plan existed in Europe before its construction, prompting an exploration of alternative influences. A review of the decade preceding its foundation shows that the institution was established through the collaboration of Iranian intellectuals – committed to advancing national progress – and the patronage of Riza Shah. Particular attention is given to ʿIsa Sadiq, who in 1931 submitted a proposal for establishing the University of Tehran, prepared in consultation with American experts. Comparative analysis indicates strong parallels between the campus’s spatial structure and American universities, highlighting it as the product of a deliberate synthesis of global models and Iranian reformist ambitions.

ABSTRACT The General Railway Law of 1855 neither established a comprehensive layout of the Spanish network nor set priorities for the construction of lines. Although it drew on earlier projects, pressure from local interests softened the final text, leaving the definition of routes largely to companies operating under individual concessions and guided by profitability. State intervention was limited to financial support, technical supervision, and, in specific cases such as the connection with Portugal, the promotion of dedicated studies. The analysis of legislative sources, engineering projects, and parliamentary debates, contrasted with recent historiography, shows that the Spanish model resulted in a hybrid system: despite adopting French-style administrative requirements, the definition of routes resembled the British experience, as it lacked a framework of centralized planning. The law introduced little that was new in normative terms, but its effectiveness lay in securing parliamentary compromise. This case highlights the limits of state-led planning in mid-nineteenth-century Europe and the decisive role of private initiative in shaping railway networks.

ABSTRACT The paper has two parts. The first surveys Bauer's trajectory from her arrival at Berkeley in 1940, through her time at Harvard and return to Berkeley in 1950. This section situates her work with Webber in the context of the interactive evolution of Department of City and Regional Planning (DCRP) at Berkeley and similar initiatives at Harvard and MIT, an important era in modern planning education. Part two starts with Webber's arrival at Berkeley in 1950, then chronologically examines his interchanges with Bauer. These begin in 1954 and cluster on two related initiatives. First was their joint research on metropolitan structure, which involved conceiving new theory and methods. The other was the expansion of the department curriculum to incorporate social sciences and establish a new research unit – the Institute of Urban and Regional Development (IURD). The paper illuminates their partnership in transforming DCRP from a focus on physical design to social policy and research. More broadly, the paper reveals how Bauer and Webber advanced a significant body of ideas through their collaborative research and institution building, at a time of major reforms in higher education. This set of ideas is reflected in the plan for the British new town of Milton Keynes.

ABSTRACT This article examines the initiation of China’s first urban transportation project in one of its most complex urban environments at the early twentieth century. Due to its distinctive political, social, and spatial conditions, Tianjin’s tramway development differed significantly from the more physically imposing architectural and urban interventions in the formal colonies around the world and some of China’s own treaty ports. The tramway network, established by a Belgian tram company, weaved through several of Tianjin’s urban divisions. By examining the ideas and practices of various imperial powers and interest groups in the shaping of the network, this article reveals a complex interplay of economic, technical, cultural, and institutional factors that influenced infrastructure construction, transcending conventional geopolitical frameworks. It argues that the establishment of the first large-scale urban transportation prioritized pragmatism and economic viability considering the semicolonial environment of China. The resulting layout of the tramway network presented opportunities to not only overcome urban fragmentation but also promote modernization of a multinational space.

ABSTRACT This study provides the first comprehensive analysis of the historical connection between New York City’s 1961 zoning regulations and the introduction of the plot ratio in Hong Kong’s 1962 Buildings Ordinance. While prior scholarship has noted possible American influence, the specific pathways, timing, and motivations have remained unclear. This study finds that while the terminologies related to plot ratio are inherited from British and American precedents, the calculation formula, bonus mechanism, and maximum permissible number ruled in the Buildings Ordinance are aligned with New York standards. Even so, the motivation behind adopting such a hybridized approach was found to be significantly different after addressing tensions between private property rights, the ambiguous legal basis of administrative zoning, and the preservation of colonial spatial hierarchy. The findings indicate the plot ratio is not a technical innovation within the local ordinance. By tracing the plot ratio’s origins as a key planning instrument, this research deepens our understanding of transcontinental knowledge transfer in colonial contexts and demonstrates how regulatory innovation can emerge through pragmatic adaptation to local political and legal conditions.

International Expositions, World Expos or World’s Fairs – hereafter referred to simply as Expos – have helped to invent, develop and disseminate the modernity that has reshaped our world since the midnineteenth century, and have contributed to the globalization of economies, cultures, societies and environments. These events are inextricably associated with pioneering inventions and technological progress, but also with empire building and colonial exploitation. According to Geppert, Expos are best understood as ‘meta-media’ that use various communicative technologies not just to convey the values of participating countries and corporations but also visions of and for the future. Futuristic exhibits, aesthetics and architectures help to explain why commentators such as Gardner consider Expos as ‘time machines’ that give the public a taste of, or a glimpse into, the future. The physical manifestation of these futures in the present means these events provide futures ready to be experienced, rather than science fiction or vague fantasies. These ‘time machines’ also have a reverse gear as Expos also function as markers of past times given that they are often staged to commemorate significant anniversaries and to build national identities by materializing shared histories and heritages.