Abstract The objective of this review to summarize the current status of information about the Alkhumra hemorrhagic fever caused by Alkhumra hemorrhagic fever virus an Arboviral infection. This virus was identified in Alkhumra district of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia in 1995 from a butcher patient. The infected individual develops symptoms febrile flu-like illness, hemorrhagic manifestations and less like encephalitis. Several cases have been reported from various locations of Saudi Arabia and a few from Egypt and is further expanding in tropical and subtropical regions of Western Asia. The virus is transmitted to human by direct contact to animal, raw meat, and biproducts as well as either tick or mosquito bites. Based on the recent status, a great concern of public health was raised with the AHFV epidemics and infection. Currently, there is no effective vaccine and antiviral therapeutics against AHFV. So, there is an urgent need to design and develop an effective preventive measure using interdisciplinary approach. This review will provide the status of research work based on the latest published information about AHFV. The provided information will be highly useful to design the effective preventive measures to control the disease in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Streszczenie W pracy przedstawiono nowe dane wskazujące na skład mikrobiomu przewodu pokarmowego człowieka, składający się z bakterii, archeonów, wirusów (w tym bakteriofagów), a także organizmów eukariotycznych i heterotroficznych jakimi są grzyby – których bytowanie w przewodzie pokarmowym określane jest mianem mykobiomu. Przewód pokarmowy człowieka podzielony na jamę ustną, gardło, przełyk, żołądek, jelito cienkie i grube, zasiedlany wyżej wymienionymi drobnoustrojami, tworzy swoisty jakościowo-ilościowy, bogaty i zróżnicowany swoisty ekosystem. Dzięki stosowaniu metod bioinformatycznych, molekularnych oraz dzięki sekwencjonowaniu metagenomowemu jest on nadal poznawany, a dzięki tym metodom możliwe jest jego lepsze poznanie. W niniejszej pracy scharakteryzowano grupy systematyczne bakterii, archeonów, wirusów i grzybów występujące w poszczególnych odcinkach przewodu pokarmowego i wskazano także na enterotypy jelita grubego. Analizując wymienione grupy mikroorganizmów w poszczególnych odcinkach przewodu pokarmowego człowieka, należy zauważyć, że odcinek jelita grubego i jamy ustnej jest „wyposażony” w najbardziej bogaty mikrobiom, natomiast gardło i przełyk posiada najmniejszą liczbę drobnoustrojów wchodzących w skład mikrobiomu. Wśród całości mikrobiomu przewodu pokarmowego człowieka najliczniejszą grupę stanowią bakterie usytuowane w jamie ustnej i jelicie cienkim, zaś najbardziej ograniczoną grupę bakterii rejestruje się w gardle i przełyku. Archeony natomiast zostały opisane najliczniej w jelicie grubym i jamie ustnej, a nie zostały stwierdzone w gardle i jelicie cienkim. Wymieniane w odcinkach przewodu pokarmowego wirusy, najliczniej występowały w jelicie grubym i jamie ustnej, natomiast nie stwierdzono ich w żołądku. Występujące w mikrobiomie grzyby, najobficiej stwierdzane były w jelicie grubym i żołądku, a w najmniejszej ilości w gardle i jelicie cienkim.

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Abstract Acinetobacter baumannii is a Gram-negative saprophytic rod inhabiting both moist niches and dry surfaces. The wide spread of the microbe in the environment by means of minimal nutritional requirements and exceptional survival capabilities give the opportunities to occupy hospital niches, and thus to create threats for hospitalized patients. This bacterium may be a part of the human microbiota as an opportunistic pathogen which upon the host’s weakening, causes less or more serious diseases. A. baumannii is an etiological factor of ventilator-associated pneumonia, which is especially dangerous for patients in intensive care units (in Poland every fifth patient suffers from such infection). Due to the increasing multidrug resistance of A. baumannii , this bacterium belongs to the group of priority pathogens. Fighting such dangerous bacteria is difficult due to their natural resistance as well as acquired resistance mechanisms in response to environmental threats. The unique ability of A. baumannii to cause diseases and acquire resistance to numerous antibiotics, make it necessary to control and prevent these infections.

Abstract One of essential bacteria used in modern agriculture, in particular because of its ability to eradicate insects, is Bacillus thuringiensis. Cry and Cyt proteins produced by Bt are selective, therefore using those proteins eliminates only larvae of target insects. There are various other known substances produced by Bt bacteria, that may help with further elimination of pests and promoting plant growth. Furthermore, there are attempts being made to use Bt strains in bioremediation of contaminated sites as well as in medicine, especially in combating human and animal pathogens, or cancer cells. 1. Introduction. 2. Characteristics of Bacillus thuringiensis. 3. Virulence factors of Bacillus thuringiensis. 4. Applications of Bacillus thuringiensis in modern agriculture 5. Novel possible applications of Bacillus thuringiensis. 6. Conclusions

Abstract Monitoring of antibiotic consumption is one of the basic tools of the strategies to combat antibiotic resistance, is an integral part of the antibiotic stewardships and helps to ensure the rational antibiotic therapy. It is used to describe the structure and dynamics of antibacterials usage. The defined daily dose (DDD) methodology and ATC (anatomical, therapeutic and chemical) classification used in the monitoring programs determine the reliability of the analyzed data and enable the comparison of the antibiotic consumption between departments, centers and regions. 1. Introduction. 2. What is the monitoring and what it is used for? 3. Antimicrobial consumption methodology. 4. ATC methodology. 5. Defined daily dose (DDD). 6. Antimicrobial consumption measures. 7. Summary

Abstract After the success of the Human Genome Project, which lead to estimating the number of human genes at only about 30–40 thousand, researchers started paying attention to a great number of genes present inside and on the surface of the human body. The gastrointestinal tract alone is a habitat for up to 1000 species of bacteria and other microorganisms. These microorganisms add a pool of 2–4 million additional genes. In 2009, a hypothesis was proposed that changes in microbiota are sensed by neurons localized along the entire bowel length, and communicated to the brain, making up the gut-brain axis. The vagus nerve seems to serve as the main communication path. Besides affecting gastrointestinal tract functions, primary neuropsychological studies show that gut microbiota is linked to HPA activity, and thus with arousal regulation and emotional functions. Research also suggests a link to cognitive functions. For now, mechanisms of those connections remain, for the most part, unknown. History of the research on human microbiota shows a complex nature of human functions and the need for integration of knowledge from, as it may seem, distant branches of science, like microbiology and psychology. While connections between microbiota and host organism remain unrecognized, our knowledge of human biology will be incomplete. 1. Human Genome Project. 2. In search for the missing genes. 3. Human Microbiome Project. 4. In search for the structure in infinity. 5. Gut-brain axis, towards neuropsychology. 6. Conclusions

Abstract The fear of blood transfusion-borne infections has been a problem since the beginning of the blood therapy era. One of the phases of all infectious diseases, including those transmitted by ticks, is the incubation period, during which there are no clinical symptoms due to the presence of microorganisms in the blood. For this reason, blood drawn from an infected donor can be a potential source of infection for the recipient at this time. Literature data show that there are no documented reports of the possibility of transmitting B. burgdorferi infection (Lyme etiological factor) to healthy man by blood transfusion. However, cases of transfusions of such infections as babesiosis, anaplasmosis, rickettsiosis, and fever, bartonellosis have been reported. Tick-borne infections are not included in the criteria for permanent (except tularemia) or temporary disqualification for blood donor candidates and for contraindications for blood sampling. Tests for routine detection of tick-borne pathogens in blood therapy are also not used. Therefore, knowledge of the dynamics of the phases of these diseases, periods of infectivity and occurring in the blood in conjunction with medical history, physical examination and the results of auxiliary diagnostic tests are of fundamental importance for the safety of blood recipients. 1. Introduction. 2. Spirochetes infections. 2.2. Lyme borreliosis. 2.2. Borrelia myiamotoi infections. 3. Spotted Fever Group rickettsioses. 4. Human granulocytic anaplasmosis 5. Bartonella sp. Infections. 6. Babesiosis. 7. Summary

Abstract The food industry is one area of industrial activities that requires the frequent implementation of technological and product innovations. Foodstuffs obtained both in technologically advanced factories, as well as in small manufacturing enterprises, are increasingly produced using innovative food additives, which include natural polysaccharide ingredients. One of these substances is bionanocellulose – microbially produced cellulose (most commonly by the genus Komagataeibacter xylinus, formerly known as Gluconacetobacter xylinus). Bionanocellulose is a polymer with exceptionally valuable functional properties resulting from its unique molecular structure (formed by the chemically ultra-pure β-1,4-glucan). The main features of bionanocellulose are high hygroscopicity, flexibility and mechanical strength. Various physical and chemical forms of bionanocellulose (produced both during surface and submerged cultivation) are increasingly used in the production of food products. The need to produce highly diversified (e.g., usable or sensory) food products as well as the increasing difficulties associated with access to conventional sources of external coal, necessitate the search of alternative culture media for the production of bionanocellulose. The aim of the work is to describe the use of alternative carbon sources for the microbiological synthesis of bionanocellulose and its application in the food industry. Introduction. 2. Structure and physico-mechanical characteristics of bionanocellulose. 3. The process of synthesis of bionanocellulose and its importance for microorganisms. 4. Microorganisms used for the production of bionanocellulose. 5. Raw materials used in the synthesis of bionanocellulose. 6. Techniques of culturing microorganisms that produce bionanocellulose. 7. Possible applications of bionanocellulose in the food industry. 8. Conclusions

Abstract The global production of L-amino acids is largely based on microbiological synthesis. The largest bioproduction concerns L-glutamic acid (1.5 million tons per year), and L-lysine (850,000 tons per year). Among other amino acids, ectoine and hydroxyectoine are mentioned in the growing demand. Currently, the main producer of ectoine based on the biotechnology process is the German company Bitop. The organism used in the ectoine production is Halomonas elongata isolated from a solar salt facility on Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles. The production of ectoine described in the literature is based on the so-called “milking” process. The great demand for amino acids is related to their properties and potential use. Ectoine, as a kosmotropic substance, has the property of stabilizing the structure of water molecules. Just like other osmolytes in aqueous solutions, ectoine increases the hydration of macromolecules, preventing them from denaturation. The industrial use of ectoine is based mainly on the ability to protect the skin and alleviate its inflammation but also applies to other, broad possibilities of its application in biotechnology, cosmetology, medicine and pharmacy. 1. Introduction. 2. Properties of ectoine. 3. The use of ectoine. 4. Chemical and biotechnological production of ectoine 5. Microorganisms synthesizing ectoine. 5.1. Methanotrophic bacteria. 6. Summary