Background: BPC-157 and GHK-Cu are synthetic peptides with potential in tissue repair, influencing molecular mechanisms in healing, angiogenesis and inflammation. Objective: This review synthesizes preclinical and clinical research on BPC-157 and GHK-Cu efficacy and safety in wound healing and tissue repair, examining mechanistic pathways and translational potential in clinical and sports medicine. Methods: Literature searches of PubMed, Embase and Cochrane Library included studies on wound healing, tissue regeneration, safety and clinical uses of BPC-157 and GHK-Cu without publication date restrictions. Results: Preclinical studies show BPC-157 promotes skin, tendon, muscle and bone healing via specific signaling pathways and growth factor upregulation. GHK-Cu enhances collagen/elastin synthesis, angiogenesis and fibroblast migration. Limited human trials evaluated BPC-157 for knee pain and IV safety, while GHK-Cu showed promise in skin quality trials. Both appear safe but lack comprehensive RCTs. Conclusion: BPC-157 and GHK-Cu show therapeutic potential in wound healing, though evidence is largely preclinical. Extensive human trials are needed to establish clinical efficacy. This review provides groundwork for future research and highlights safety for sports medicine practitioners.

Background: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries are among the most severe and debilitating orthopedic traumas in modern football. The high-intensity nature of the sport, which demands frequent pivoting, rapid deceleration, and high-impact contact, significantly predisposes players to these injuries. Aim of the study: This comprehensive review aims to synthesize current epidemiological data, analyze in-depth injury mechanisms (including neurocognitive factors), evaluate surgical and non-operative management strategies, detail criteria-based return-to-sport (RTS) protocols, and review the efficacy of modern prevention strategies for ACL injuries in football players. Material and Methods: A comprehensive review of the literature was conducted utilizing 20 selected peer-reviewed articles, including national registries, meta-analyses, and systematic video analysis studies published between 2012 and 2025. Results: Recent literature indicates a substantial burden of ACL injuries in football, heavily influenced by the level of play, gender, and exposure type. Amateur players present a higher incidence rate (0.074/1000h) compared to professionals (0.058/1000h). Match-play exponentially increases the risk compared to training. Non-contact mechanisms account for over 55% of injuries, primarily occurring during defensive pressing and rapid deceleration. Emerging evidence highlights neurocognitive errors as significant contributors to non-contact ruptures. Female athletes face a 1.5 to 1.6-fold higher risk due to anatomical, hormonal, and biomechanical disparities. While surgical reconstruction (ACLR) remains the gold standard, returning to pre-injury performance is highly challenging. Only approximately 44-55% of athletes successfully return to competitive play, with fear of reinjury (kinesiophobia) acting as the primary barrier in 33% of failed cases. Furthermore, the risk of a secondary ACL injury reaches up to 30% in adolescent populations.

Background: Obesity is a chronic multifactorial disease that affects a growing proportion of the global population. According to the WHO, obesity is now a global concern. From 1990 to 2022, the prevalence of obesity among minors increased from 2% to 8%, and among adults, it rose from 7% to 16%. The growing global prevalence of obesity has intensified the need for pharmacological therapies. Aim: This narrative review presents the clinical efficacy, metabolic effects, and safety profiles of semaglutide, tirzepatide, and retatrutide, with particular emphasis on their underlying mechanisms of action. Materials and Methods: A narrative review was conducted based on key randomised controlled trials, including the STEP, SURMOUNT, and phase II retatrutide programs. Data on weight reduction, metabolic parameters, and adverse events were extracted and analysed. Mechanistic insights were integrated to interpret differences in clinical outcomes. Results: All three therapies produced significant weight reduction and metabolic improvements, with efficacy increasing in relation to the number of targeted receptors. Semaglutide resulted in a weight loss of up to 16.0%, tirzepatide achieved a reduction of 20.9%, and retatrutide demonstrated the highest efficacy, with a weight loss of 24.2%. All agents were associated with improvements in cardiac, glycemic, and lipid profiles. Gastrointestinal adverse events were frequent and dose-dependent, resulting in higher discontinuation rates at higher doses. Conclusions: Incretin agonists represent a significant advancement in obesity pharmacotherapy, with multi-receptor targeting translating into superior metabolic outcomes. Retatrutide demonstrates the highest potential efficacy among studied agents, although further phase III data are required. These findings support the concept that obesity is a chronic disease that requires long-term treatment and highlight the growing role of mechanism-based pharmacotherapy in its management.

Background: Osteoarthritis is a chronic, degenerative joint disease, which manifests mainly with joint pain, but with disease progression may also lead to much lower quality of life and disability. Its progression is associated with obesity and a sedentary lifestyle, while physical activity seems to be a protective factor. Studies in murine models suggest a potential role for myokines – molecules secreted by skeletal muscle during contraction. They appear to have anti-inflammatory effects and may improve joint health. Aim: The aim of this review was to evaluate the role of myokines as potential mediators linking obesity, physical activity and osteoarthritis progression. Additionally, we aimed to summarise current evidence on the impact of obesity and weight loss on osteoarthritis and to assess the immunomodulatory functions of selected myokines, particularly irisin and IL-6. Materials and methods: This paper is a narrative review. A literature search was conducted in the PubMed database up to February 2026. For part 2., the following terms were used: “osteoarthritis” combined with “obesity” with a preference for meta-analyses and large cohort studies. For part 3., the following terms were used: “myokines”, “irisin”, “IL-6” alone or combined with “obesity” or “knee osteoarthritis”. Due to the narrative nature of this review, selection bias cannot be excluded. Conclusions: Obesity is associated with osteoarthritis progression, as it increases joint pain and radiographic progression. Weight loss and physical exercise are effective treatment strategies in patients with osteoarthritis both treated surgically and non-surgically. Irisin shows anti-inflammatory effects in in vitro and in vivo studies, but in human it is rather a modulator or marker of exercise efficacy. IL-6 is a highly context-dependent cytokine that is generally considered pro-inflammatory but may also exert anti-inflammatory effects when acting as a myokine.

Background: Childhood obesity is associated with an increased risk of anxiety and depressive symptoms, representing a growing global mental health concern. Aim: The aim of this review was to examine the impact of physical activity on anxiety and depressive symptoms in children and adolescents with overweight or obesity, with particular emphasis on underlying neurobiological, psychosocial, and behavioral mechanisms. Material and methods: This narrative review synthesizes current evidence on the effects of physical activity on mental health outcomes in children and adolescents with overweight or obesity. A literature search was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, including studies published between January 2015 and January 2026. Both observational and interventional studies, including randomized controlled trials, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses, were considered. Findings were synthesized narratively. Results: Available evidence indicates that physical activity is associated with small-to-moderate reductions in depressive and anxiety symptoms in youth, with more consistent effects observed for depression. These benefits are mediated through multiple neurobiological, psychosocial, and behavioral pathways. Intervention effectiveness appears to depend on factors such as duration, intensity, supervision, and the inclusion of psychosocial components. However, substantial heterogeneity across studies and limited long-term data remain important limitations. Conclusions: Physical activity represents a promising, accessible, and cost-effective strategy for improving mental health outcomes in children and adolescents with overweight or obesity. To maximize benefits, interventions should be structured, inclusive, and supported by behavioral and motivational strategies. Further research is needed to optimize intervention design and clarify causal mechanisms.

Background. Knee pain can significantly impact patients' quality of life. Pain emerging with age is most commonly associated with osteoarthritis of the knee. Aim. Current clinical management comprises three lines of treatment. Results. The first and second lines focus on conservative and pharmacological management, while the third involves surgical intervention. Conclusions. This paper discusses both current therapeutic standards and innovative treatment methods.

Background: The glymphatic system is a perivascular network that promotes the exchange of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and interstitial fluid (ISF) and assists the elimination of metabolic waste products from the central nervous system. Aim: The aim of this narrative review was to summarise current evidence regarding possible interactions between physical activity and glymphatic function. Methods: A literature search was conducted in PubMed to identify studies addressing glymphatic transport, CSF dynamics, and physiological adaptations associated with exercise. Results: The majority of research on the effect of exercise on the glymphatic system is from experimental studies using animal models, which have found that voluntary exercise is associated with increased influx and clearance of interstitial solutes. These effects have also been linked to improved vascular health, decreased neuroinflammation, alterations in aquaporin-4 polarisation, and improved sleep health, including increased slow-wave sleep. Recent neuroimaging findings in human research suggest that long-term physical activity is connected with increased MRI measurements of glymphatic and meningeal lymphatic flow. Conclusions: These findings are all derived from indirect imaging methods, and many studies indicate that physical activity affects multiple physiological pathways involved in glymphatic transport. Further studies combining exercise interventions with advanced neuroimaging approaches are needed to clarify whether and how physical activity influences glymphatic function in the human brain.

Background: Uterine carcinosarcoma represents a rare subtype of the primary tumors of the uterus, consisting of less than 5% of uterine neoplasms. The most common symptom is abnormal vaginal bleeding. Most frequently, this type of cancer occurs in women over the age of 70. Aim: The aim of the paper is to present the significance of early diagnosis and treatment of uterine carcinosarcoma and to compare treatment methods among patients with different stages of this type of cancer. Materials and methods: This paper presents a case report of a 56 yeras old patient who was admitted to the hospital due to postmenopausal bleeding. During examination, an echogenic heterogeneous tumor was spotted in the uterine cervix. The materials obtained during the uterine dilation and curettage (D&C) revealed sarcoma stromale. During the second admission, laparoscopic hysterectomy was performed. Histopathological analysis of the material recognised neoplasm as carcinosarcoma not otherwise specified (NOS). According to the decision made during consultation, the patient was qualified for chemotherapy (6 cycles), followed up with radiotherapy. Results: Uterine carcinosarcoma is characterized by its unique, bi-phasic structure, aggressive, high-grade character and poor prognosis, which all create diagnostic and therapeutic difficulties. Due to its rare occurrence, precise histopathological examination is crucial in the diagnostic process and further treatment administration. Conclusions: Carcinosarcoma is an uncommon and distinctive form of uterine tumor. Its unusual morphology can complicate the diagnostic process and histopathological evaluation, potentially delaying the final diagnosis. Furthermore, because of its biphasic nature, its treatment approach differs from that used for more typical uterine cancers.

Frenula of the oral cavity are small anatomical structures that play a significant role in the proper functioning of the stomatognathic system. Despite their relatively simple morphology, abnormalities in the structure, length, or attachment of oral frenula may influence feeding, speech, oral hygiene, occlusion, and craniofacial development. Disorders related to labial, lingual, and buccal frenula are observed in patients of all ages and may require interdisciplinary management involving dentistry, orthodontics, speech therapy, and oral surgery. Due to the wide spectrum of clinical consequences associated with abnormal frenula, a thorough understanding of their anatomy, classification, and clinical significance is essential.

Intense physical exercise, especially when performed frequently or for prolonged durations, can disturb iron balance through a combination of increased demand, increased loss, and impaired absorption. The strongest evidence comes from endurance sport, military training, and periods of intensified loading, where iron deficiency without anemia and overt iron-deficiency anemia are both common clinical problems. Mechanisms include exercise-induced inflammation and hepcidin upregulation, intravascular hemolysis, gastrointestinal microischemia with occult blood loss, hematuria, sweat losses, menstrual blood loss, low energy availability, and the amplified iron demand of altitude-related erythropoiesis. Importantly, the hematologic response to training also includes plasma volume expansion, which can mimic anemia without true iron deficiency and complicate interpretation. In athletes, clinically meaningful iron deficiency may present before hemoglobin falls, with fatigue, impaired recovery, lower maximal oxygen uptake, diminished training quality, and reduced work efficiency. Diagnosis therefore requires more than hemoglobin alone and should integrate ferritin, transferrin saturation, inflammatory context, and where indicated soluble transferrin receptor or reticulocyte indices. Management begins with confirmation of true deficiency and identification of the mechanism, followed by dietary optimization, oral iron when indicated, and selective use of parenteral iron in carefully chosen cases. This review summarizes the physiology linking exercise to iron homeostasis, identifies athlete groups at highest risk, distinguishes pseudoanemia from true deficiency, and provides a practical framework for diagnosis, prevention, and treatment.