Philosophy is one of the oldest disciplines in human history, and its birth originated from humanity’s rational exploration of the essence of the world. With the progress of human civilisation, philosophy has continuously developed its own system, responding to the particular questions raised by the era with the thinking of its own time, and profoundly influencing the development of individuals and society. At present, the importance of teaching philosophy has aroused concern in more and more countries around the world. This paper realistically explores the educational potential of philosophy teaching. Taking the development of contemporary Chinese philosophical resources as an example, this discussion on the Chinese plan for philosophy teaching and proposes key points for optimization.

The study aims to summarize the experience of teaching philosophy in French culture of the 19th century. The relevance of the topic is connected with the fact that many of the prerequisites of modern culture were laid precisely in the “age of miracles”, which brought many outstanding scientific discoveries, significantly changed the appearance of the communication system and industrial production, as well as witnessed a fierce social confrontation. To reveal the patterns inherent in the pedagogical practice of this important period of world history is one of the ways to realize the origins of what is happening in the field of philosophy today. As materials was used the content of textbooks and lecture courses popular at that time, which had a significant impact on visitors to university classrooms. The following methods were used in the study: hermeneutic, phenomenological, comparative historical. As dominant models of teaching philosophy, the approaches of the school of “ideologists”, eclecticism, and various versions of spiritualism are considered. These approaches were directly associated with political conflicts that accompanied the fall of the dictatorship of the Montagnards, the establishment of a consulate regime, the proclamation of the Empire, and then the Restoration, the July Monarchy, the Second Republic, and finally the Second Empire and the Third Republic. The study substantiates the conclusion that the pedagogical experience associated with the emphasis of worldview ideas in the field of higher education cannot be considered tracing paper from the historical and philosophical process. Mainly because not all areas of philosophical thought got the opportunity to promote their ideas in the academic sphere. At the same time, the philosophical model prevailing in the educational sphere had to both respond to the challenges of the era and respond to the very fact of the existence of opponents. For all the certainty of the pluralistic nature of philosophy in its past history, in the field of education, the tendency to unify worldview problems manifested itself quite eloquently. At the same time, the teaching of philosophy was by no means reduced to a set of opportunistic slogans, since the very sphere of worldview knowledge was inherent in immanent laws, which significantly influenced, among other things, the nature of its teaching. An important feature of pedagogical practice was also that the differentiation and deepening of the ways of presenting philosophical content to students of educational institutions served as one of the tools to strengthen cultural identity.

This research delves into the socio-philosophical dimensions of security, assessing its metaphysical and existential aspects and considering how existential threats reshape philosophical perspectives in the contemporary society. The relevance of this study is underscored by the urgent need to understand how traditional and non-traditional security threats - ranging from military conflicts to cybercrime and climate change - impact societal structures and individual freedoms. The paper highlights the intersection of social structures and security, revealing how security is instrumentalised by various actors, including governments, to control or influence social dynamics. Moreover, it emphasizes how media representation and public fear can influence political decision-making, urging a critical examination of how security discourses are constructed and whose interests they serve. By integrating socio-philosophical perspectives, this paper establishes a framework for understanding security as a multifaceted phenomenon. Notably, this research underscores the role of cultural, psychological, and ethical dimensions in shaping public understanding and policy responses to security threats. Key findings illustrate that contemporary security cannot be narrowly defined; rather, it necessitates an integrated approach encompassing political, economic, social, and environmental considerations and a re-evaluation of traditional security models to address contemporary challenges such as cybersecurity threats and digital ethics. Ultimately, this work argues for highlighting the necessity of interdisciplinary approaches in developing contemporary security strategies effectively addressing fluctuating dynamics of the international agenda.

In his Novum Organum, F. Bacon put forward the idea of “prerogative instances” as a means of shortening the paths of putting forward and testing hypotheses. Bacon’s “prerogative instances” are considered in the research as a possible answer to J.S. Mill’s question about why in some cases one example is enough for complete induction, while in other cases even myriads of mutually agreeing examples are not enough for a reliable conclusion. It is shown how the assessment of “prerogative instances” and F. Bacon’s theory of induction itself changed among historians of philosophy and science throughout the 19th-20th centuries. The classification of “prerogative instances” carried out by F. Bacon is analyzed, and its weak points are identified. The author’s classification of “prerogative instances” based on F. Bacon’s ideas is proposed, and the possibility and prospects of alternative approaches to such classification are assessed. The place of “prerogative instances” in F. Bacon’s general theory of induction is considered. It is shown that some of them can be used before compiling the “tables of presence”, “tables of absence” and “tables of degrees” that form the basis of F. Bacon’s method of eliminative induction, another part should be placed in these tables, and the third part can be applied after the corresponding hypotheses have been put forward on the basis of the tables. A distinction is made between induction as a derivation of universal hypotheses from singular premises and induction as a method of empirical research that allows one to put forward and test generalizing hypotheses on the basis of individual facts. It is noted that the fair criticism of induction as an unreliable conclusion was unjustifiably transferred to induction as a method in the post-positivist philosophy of science of the 20th century. The possibility of using “prerogative instances” as heuristic methods of putting forward and testing hypotheses, the effectiveness of which depends on the adopted metaphysical assumptions, is indicated in those modern theories of induction that reject the idea of constructing a universal inductive method.

This study examines the role and impact of human needs and interests on the emergence of the state. Considering the ever-increasing fragmentation of contemporary social cognition, it notes that the analysis of this relationship in modern social science is hampered by the wide range of related data from psychological, legal, political and other sciences. The state of research in the field of human needs and interests is also analysed, and the lack of systematically developed ideas revealing the peculiarities of these phenomena in the contemporary social theory is pointed out. Based on the typology of needs developed by Karen Kh. Momdzhyan, the author shows that the biosocial security needs are one of the most important factors in the emergence of statehood. It is demonstrated that the goal of achieving personal security is largely dependent on the level of social security, and the latter is now mainly provided by the state. Special attention is paid to the problem of subjective characteristics and qualities of human groups, including society and the state; the philosophical foundations of methodological collectivism, which insists that the needs and interests of individuals are directly determined by their social groups, are analysed. Adhering to the position of moderate methodological individualism, the authors problematise the scientific nature of such discourse, pointing to the actual absence of such needs and interests in human groups that would go beyond the needs and interests of the people who form them. The study also examines the conflict paradigm of social interaction, analysing the idea of a ‘conflict of interest’ between an individual and the state or society. The authors conclude that there is a stable relationship between the satisfaction of one’s needs and the realisation of one’s interests and the origin of the state.

In this study, the author examines the transformations taking place in modern society and affecting the socio-cultural dominance in education in Russia. In addition, attention is drawn to differences in the interpretation of the concepts of education, training and upbringing, and the importance of the transition from traditional pedagogy (knowledge transfer) to human-centered and socio-cultural education is emphasized. This study addresses the issue of updating the educational organization model - dialogue disappears, live communication is replaced by online technologies. Speaking about globalization and digitalization as a kind of anthropological challenge, the author refers to the Russian thinkers of the last century (L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, etc.) - they emphasize the personal principle in the educational process, which is deeply connected with the social approach. In this case, according to scientists, the educational process should focus on personal growth, which is the main goal of education. The complexities of linguistic culture are also at the center of modern sociocultural problems: the Russian language is becoming scarce, the vocabulary of modern youth (schoolchildren and students) is falling sharply, borrowings, vulgarisms, slang and much more appear. This is what the author of the article says and comes to the conclusion that it is teaching (socio)The humanities is becoming a space for shaping the culture of the younger generation. Thus, this study highlights the need to identify both the positive and negative dynamics of the modern transformation of education and the actualization of the meanings and value orientation of the learning and upbringing processes.

The musician and composer Paul Natorp has not been recognised in research. The references in his Self-Presentation (Selbstdarstellung) (1921) to the importance of music, especially in his early years, have so far remained unacknowledged. The musical legacy and previously unpublished diaries and letters provide more detailed information. They demonstrate the young Natorp’s passionate relationship with music. In addition, it becomes clear that Natorp was active as a composer throughout his life. The article starts by describing the musical legacy. At the centre is the correspondence with Johannes Brahms, to whom the young Natorp submitted some of his compositions for review. Brahms strongly advised against a career as a musician and composer. Also significant are reports from the young Natorp about his composition studies with the musicologist and composer Gustav Jacobsthal (1845-1912) in Strasbourg. Reports on concerts with Clara Schumann and Franz Liszt are biographical and cultural-historical documents. The article concludes with a sketch of Natorp's reflections on the world-historical significance of Ludwig van Beethoven’s music.

The paper attempts to identify the period in Russia when professional specialization in scientific and educational spheres is formed. To solve this problem, the author takes into account the institutional segment of philosophy in Russia, first of all, the university. Then he identifies the functionality of holders of academic degrees “Master of Philosophy”, determines the moment when and how, where and under what conditions philosophy becomes a designation of professional interests. To achieve this goal, the author analyzes the activities of the teaching corporation of metropolitan (Moscow, St. Petersburg) and provincial (Kazan, Kiev) universities of the Russian Empire. The author pays attention to the content of the actual educational process and research activities, and also takes into account the normative documents of general and private character ((local, regional levels, governmental orders, University Statutes). To form the context, the author pays attention to the interaction of academic corporations with state structures (Ministry of Public Education, Senate, Synod), takes into account the mindset of society, ideological background, and political situation. All this makes it possible to record important moments when philosophy, from a kind of “private case” of professional training, from a “secondary element” of professional development, is gradually transformed into a life choice, into a professional activity, into one of the dominant spheres of the academic community.

This paper presents an interpretation of the connection between Natorp’s early and late philosophy. An analysis of two versions of Natorp’s deduction of categories shows the consistent development of Natorp’s thought. Each deduction expresses, in Natorp’s words, a direction of movement between the centre and the periphery. The early deduction moves from the periphery to the centre by means of the transcendental method. The critical investigation of the conditions of possibility of mathematical-physical science reveals the structure of thought itself. The late deduction is oriented in the opposite direction, from the centre to the periphery. Thought now develops freely and establishes the systematic character of philosophy. We argue that the two deductions complement each other in a single coherent position that accounts for the relationship between critique and system. Philosophical systematics is conceived as the necessary sequel and culmination of an inquiry, the first part of which is developed according to the transcendental method.

The work of Uruguayan philosopher Carlos Vaz Ferreira (1872-1958) shows a deep ethical commitment to institutions and forms of sociopolitical organization that favor peaceful coexistence in societies that, like his own, at the beginning of the 20th century, faced various conflicts that led people to hold opposing positions on how to solve conflicts. In the context of widespread concern about the risks that polarization entails for contemporary democracies, Vaz Ferreira’s study of the nature of this type of problem, the analysis of the epistemic and psycho-logical conditions that make it possible and, above all, his proposal on the kind of solution that can be applied to normative problems, are of particular interest to address this phenomenon philosophically. Vaz Ferreira conceptualizes polarization, especially in its social and political dimension, as a problem of ideals, that is, a normative issue that, unlike explanatory problems, can be solved by choosing among different options, none of them perfect or necessarily excluding, which the philosopher calls a solution of choice . In this sense, false oppositions, exclusivism, and extremism are, in most cases, obstacles to finding solutions to the problems of ideals and, therefore, often lie at the root of polarizing tendencies. Vaz Ferreira offers an original contribution as his thought articulates epistemic, psycho-logical , ethical, and political elements in studying the causes and effects of polarizing tendencies, thus allowing us to address this phenomenon comprehensively as a single, coherent, and systematic unit of analysis.