Throughout history, new religious movements (NRMs) have been treated with suspicion and fear. Although contemporary democracies do not throw members of NRMs to the lions or burn them at the stake, they have ways and means of making it clear that pluralism and freedom of religion have their limits. The limits to pluralism are evident enough in countries such as Saudi Arabia or North Korea that have regimes stipulating that citizens must adhere exclusively to their one and only True religion or ideology. Limitations to pluralism have also been manifest in countries such as Northern Nigeria, Sri Lanka or Myanmar (Burma), where terrorists have used violence to eliminate religions other than their own. Even otherwise peaceful democracies – that have signed the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the European Convention on Human Rights, and other statements affirming freedom of belief (and non-belief) for all – can discriminate against religions, especially the new religious movements in their midst, and this they do in a variety of ways [Richardson 1994; Lindholm 2004;
 Kirkham 2013]. This paper outlines, from the perspective of a sociologist of religion, some of the ways in which such attitudes toward, and treatment of, NRMs can demonstrate more subtle, but nevertheless marked and serious limitations to freedom, even in societies that pride themselves on their progressive and inclusive approach to diversity.

Abstract. The article is devoted to the idea of freedom of conscience, the processes of developing its understanding in the Middle Ages, the opposition of various approaches, which are represented by thinkers of the Western and Eastern Christian tradition. These traditions were formed and developed within the framework of interpretive assessments of the relationship between the state and the church, known as Caesaropapism and Papоcaesarism. The peculiarities of Western Christian and Eastern Christian approaches to issues of freedom of conscience, which were formed by the nature of state power and its relations with the church, are analyzed. The Catholic understanding of relations was based on the independence of the church from the state, on its freedom, on the opposition of the spiritual and the earthly, on the supremacy of the former over the latter. It is claimed that the Roman Catholic Church has always claimed complete control over the secular state. According to the Orthodox view, the "spiritual and secular" should be integrated into one "symphonic" system with the leading role of the state. The church "gave its freedom" to the Caesars.
 The mechanism of the emergence of religious alternatives to the official teachings of the church, in particular heresies, sectarianism, schism, which served as a breeding ground for the emergence of religious freedom, freedom in the church. The role of the rationalist and anti-church component, philosophical and theological concepts, which were determined by a significant increase in scientific knowledge and the development of philosophical teachings, which also led to ideas of freedom of conscience, is emphasized. During this period, the genesis of the idea of freedom of conscience was played by the substantiation of the idea of human rights, in particular, the right to freedom of conscience and religion.
 The Middle Ages are presented as a specific era, which is associated with previous periods in the intellectual - philosophical and theological - understanding of freedom of conscience, in which despite all the negative socio-political, religious processes, persecution of freethinkers, formed principles of freedom of conscience and theoretical justification future paradigm. During this period, it was mainly about freedom of religious conscience, about the freedom of the church, about conscience, freedom of will, and not about freedom of conscience. It was important to substantiate the idea of the right of the autonomous mind, the doctrine of "natural light", the distinction between the concepts of "sacred" and "secular". At the same time, freedom of religious conscience can be said only for Christian believers, all others - infidels, "schismatics", heretics - were outlawed, society considered them as enemies of the state and the church.
 Heretical movements, which originated in the bosom of the Christian church and were determined by the context and events of the Middle Ages, became the environment where the ideas of freedom of conscience, including freedom of religious conscience, religious tolerance received "energy" for their development and manifestation as a public demand.

UARR Appeal concerning the Law about sects

An overview of the online conference "Jehovah's Witnesses and Their Opponents: Russia, the West, and More," held on September 3, 2020 at the initiative of CESNUR

This article highlights the history of Jehovah's Witnesses as a Christian religion in Ukraine from its occurrence on the territory of Ukraine in the early 20th century to the present day. The response of the Witnesses to the massive attempts of the Nazi and Soviet regimes to marginalize and suppress their religious manifestations is described separately. In particular, the biblical nature and confessional content of one of the fundamental teachings of the Witnesses – neutrality – is analyzed and explained. It includes the information about what it means and what it does not mean for believers. This makes it possible to better understand the current display of the neutrality of the denomination members when it comes to compliance with certain requirements of the local government. 
 The growth statistics of the denomination members throughout history are given, which indicate the failed attempts of the totalitarian governments repressive system to eradicate the faith in the controlled territories. 
 For the first time, information is published from the memoirs of Witnesses who tried to obtain state registration in 1949 when under the communist regime and the reaction of the government officials to believers’ attempts to be recognized by the state and society. 
 There is a link between the recognition of the state through state registration and the increase of confessional activity, by which the Witnesses actually disprove the myths and labels produced and imposed on society by totalitarian regimes for decades. Emphasis is placed on the Witnesses’ current activities, which gives an idea of their attitude towards Ukrainian society and their role in strengthening and affirming Christian values among fellow citizens. Their publishing activity, evangelization work, religious and family values, public worship, educational programs, charitable and social work, attitude to representatives of other religions are analyzed. 
 The view of health care is particularly examined. It describes the principles of a reasonable balance that Witnesses follow between the right to make informed treatment choices (including the refusal to use blood) and the attitude toward life and health as one of the highest human values. The significant contribution of Jehovah's Witnesses to the development of alternative nonblood treatments in world medicine is acknowledged. 
 Therein are recorded the conclusions from numerous religious studies of Ukrainian and European institutions regarding the social and pedagogical value of materials published and distributed by Jehovah's Witnesses through their periodicals and official online resources.
 The involvement of Jehovah's Witnesses in providing charitable assistance to civilians during the conflict in Donbas is highlighted. The activities of Jehovah's Witnesses in the context of their attitude to the culture, history, and traditions of the local people are considered. In particular, the part of the tourist program for fellow believers, who come from abroad to join in the ministry or assemblies, is to get familiar with Ukrainian monuments and the historical heritage. Witnesses publish and distribute Bible publications in 14 languages spoken by small indigenous communities in Ukraine.
 The social significance of biblical teaching, which is meant to meet the spiritual needs of Ukrainians with hearing and visual impairments as well as those who currently remain in places of correctional centers is outlined. 
 For the first time, significant decisions of higher courts in Ukraine and other countries regarding Jehovah's Witnesses are considered. In recent years, the issues of military service and the right for alternative (non-military) service have been considered in higher domestic and foreign courts; denomination’s compliance with the requirements for the provision of state subsidies guaranteed to recognized religions; the right to build and use their places of worship, and proper assessment of religious hate crimes against Jehovah's Witnesses by law enforcement agencies. The decisions of the courts in the above-mentioned cases show that states consider Jehovah's Witnesses to be a recognized religion with the right to exercise freedom of conscience and religion.

The author examines the process of establishment of Christian understanding of freedom of conscience and freedom of religion and tolerance. In doing so, he draws on the achievements of the Greek and Greek-Roman traditions of interpreting freedom of conscience. The time of late antiquity accounts for the time of organizational establishment and strengthening of the new religion - Christianity. Describing this period, the author notes the presence of a variety of cults and sects in which foreign gods (in particular, Egyptian and Iranian) were worshiped. In this situation, individuals were free to choose their faith and satisfy their personal need for spiritual connection with God or gods. Against the background of the fall of the authority of ancient religions, the emergence and strengthening of the Emperor cult Christians seek recognition by the authorities, the equation of rights. After all, Christianity becomes a state religion. At this time, a new religious paradigm was emerging that could be a factor in the multi-ethnic, multi-tribal, or multilingual unity of the Roman Empire. The tendency of growing interest in monotheistic, in particular Jewish, religion became noticeable: the idea of one and all-pervading God was opposed to ancient polytheism.
 The article reveals the peculiarities of the Christian understanding of freedom, which underlies the inner personal spiritual freedom bestowed by God. Christianity the first formulated the idea of freedom of religious conscience as freedom to choose religion. In addition to the individual dimension of freedom of conscience, Christianity has actualized the community's right to freedom of religion, freedom of outside religion, and worship. At the same time, it theoretically substantiated these rights and practically required its observance by the authorities.
 The legitimacy of the affirmation of the principle of freedom of religious conscience is the Milan edict of 313, which opened the union of the Christian church and the state, as well as the constitutionalization of the Christian church as a state church. This provoked persecution on religious grounds and the struggle of different movements, both within Christianity and beyond, for the right to freedom of religion, the free expression of their religious beliefs.
 Christianity significantly influenced the evolution of ideas about freedom of conscience, becoming the semantic nucleus of its modern understanding. However, early Christianity proved to be a force that, in the struggle for its claim, was repeatedly harassed, but also resorted to persecution of dissenters, showing intolerance to other worldviews and religions.

The article substantiates the universal value of religious freedom, based on the fundamental human right to freedom of religion and belief. Referring to the relevant international documents, the author reveals the content of the concept of "religious freedom" and concludes that there are two basic values at the heart of human rights: human dignity and equality. Only a systematic approach to freedom of religion in the human rights complex gives them universal value.
 There are two components to freedom of religion (belief): freedom of thought, conscience, and religion; the right to profess one's religion or belief. Religious freedom has both a universal and a private dimension.
 Being secular in nature, freedom of religion is especially evident in modern societies, which secularity and inclusivity empowers people to decide for themselves about their religiosity.
 The article deals with the restrictions that exist for religious freedom. Often the right to practice one's religion comes into conflict with different rights of other people. The protection of these rights must come from the principles of non-discrimination, neutrality and impartiality, respect for the right to religion, pluralism and tolerance, institutional and personal autonomy, lack of a hierarchy of human rights.
 The article argues that religious freedom is a universal value and right in the human rights complex.

The article is devoted to the origin of the idea of freedom of conscience, which, according to the author, appeared in the era of classical antiquity. Earlier, in the primitive community and in the era of early antiquity, where mythological consciousness prevailed, humanity had not yet thought of freedom. At the same time, in ancient epochs of different ethnos, f.ex. the Bible and other historical sources, we find facts that demonstrate an insurmountable human desire for independence, freedom: manifestations of doubt, disobedience, free-thinking and actions that contradict traditions, established rules and norms, as well as a desire to be free from the influence of the past. Doubts, free thought, are a profound expression of the "freedom of spirit" that is, according to St. Augustine, "freedom itself." Already in the ancient epoch of human existence in the religious-mythological consciousness formed the idea that the human essence itself provides for the possibility of disobedience, social deviation, that the "obedience" of a free man is different from absolute and unconditional submission.
 In a certain period, the “axial time” period, almost simultaneously (in historical dimension), Zarathustra (VI BC), Buddha (564-483 BC), Confucius (551-479 BC) declared themselves; in the Middle East, in Palestine, the Jewish prophets preached, in Greece in those years appeared philosophers Thales, Parmenides, Socrates and Protagoras. The demythologization of consciousness violates the traditional connection of a person with the traditions of the tribe, race, with various prescriptions and norms of a religious nature. It is time for reflection: a person's understanding of his own actions, the specifics of his spiritual world. It is a transition from the ritual-mythological consciousness of the primitive man to self-reflective, abstract, speculative and analytical thinking. Man begins to become aware of his being and himself, sprouts and develops an individual consciousness, an important hypostasis of which is the desire of the individual for freedom.
 In ancient Greece, as early as this day, the individual “I” was taking the first steps to stand out from the community-generic “We”. Individual philosophers emerge who, contrary to tradition, preach new ethical and religious ideas, new knowledge, contribute to the transformation of human consciousness, demonstrating and affirming their desire for freedom, so far without conceptual understanding of it.
 The article reveals the stages of the unfolding of ideas of freedom and conscience, analyzes the thoughts of Greek philosophers, in particular Socrates and Aristotle, explains the origin of these ideas precisely during the heyday of the polis, which democratic principles of organizing community life formed a free man, citizen, freedom of thought, freedom of thought and speech. Antiquity laid the foundation for all Western consciousness of freedom - both the reality of freedom and its idea (Jaspers), in particular the idea of freedom of conscience, which found its further development in Christianity.

The article is devoted to the problems of the modern family faced with the complicated challenges of the XXI century in post-secular society. In place of the religious world order, which regulated family relations for millenia, based on unchanging religious dogmas, a new era comes, which strongly refuses religious consecration of marriage and family, in a new way constituting the relations of secular state and church, desacralizes morality. The secular gradually covers the family and family ties, partly solving prejudiced problems of inequality of articles and generations, inequalities of social roles, and so on. Instead of changing the religious model of the family, a new type of family relationship comes in, based on the freedom of each member of the family, freeing them from slavery. However, the secular day raises new problems, including social orphanhood, violence, single-parent families, drug addiction, etc., which need to be resolved in the post-secular society. These problems are perceived as religious (religious-based families) and non-religious (families that do not put God or gods at the heart of their relationship) families who are looking for ways out of the crisis. The article defines the signs of this post-secular society, where both religious and secular ones exist simultaneously. In return, the separation of the secular from the religious and the suppression of the religious secular, the absolute priority of the secular over the religious comes another model. Religion on the wave of religious revival is actively included in the public sphere, is clearly represented in various social projects, including family, so that religion gradually increases its authority and influence. In this situation, facing the complex challenges facing the family, the religious and secular worlds are forced to seek such forms of communion in order to jointly solve the problems that have arisen. Ukraine still has to overcome mutual distrust, ignorance of opportunities of each other, accumulate resources, since both the church and the state work on one subject - a citizen of the state and a believer church.

In an interview with the Polish weekly "Niedziela" (21/2017), the Lviv Archbishop-Metropolitan of the Roman Catholic Church, Mieczyslaw Mokszycki, noticed that the sin of "genocide of the Poles" lies with the Ukrainian people and until he (the people) is cleansed of this sin - he does not admit his guilt before the Polish people, he will not have a blessing and peace will not come.77 Bishop, linking together the "sin of genocide" and the war on the Donbass, thus seeks to prove that this war is a consequence of the unacknowledged Ukrainians blame for the Poles for the Volyn tragedy 1943 ( or, as it is called in Poland, the Volyn distinction), and therefore its (the war in the East) should be considered primarily metaphysically - as God's knowledge, as a punishment of the entire Ukrainian people for this blame, besides the clergyman, and stipulates that "God is not God , which punishes its people ".