European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization

Abstract In the context of risk analysis, horizon scanning activity is a necessary component of any foresight process. This applies also to the specific context of biological invasions, supported and accelerated by climate change and global trade. Today, various institutions and research centres are equipped with a set of tools and methods for early warning on emerging threats. In the case of plant pests, web signals, trade data, community science data and sentinel plants are important sources of information, then analysed and elaborated through multicriteria approaches. The scope of this paper is to provide an overview of current practices, highlighting strengths and shortcomings, and to inform future research and policy initiatives about opportunities to address global change in this field.

Abstract The azalea lace bug Stephanitis (Stephanitis) pyrioides (Scott, 1874) (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Tingidae) originates from the East Palaearctic. In 2020, this alien species was recorded for the first time in the European part of Russia (Krasnodar Territory, Sochi), notably attacking Rhododendron × hybridum hort. It most likely arrived there with plants for planting from Italy. The main morphological characteristics of adults and larvae are described and illustrated. The morphological differences between S. pyrioides and closely related S. pyri (Fabricius, 1775) are highlighted in the key to distinguish these two species, bearing in mind that now both of them can be found in the south of the European part of Russia. Additionally, DNA barcoding data for S. pyrioides from Sochi were analysed against other related species of Stephanitis whose DNA barcodes are available in Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD) and GenBank: S. takeyai Drake et Maa, 1955, S. oberti (Kolenati, 1857), S. mendica Horváth, 1912, and S. chinensis Drake, 1948. The bionomics, distribution, damage and impact of S. pyrioides are outlined.

Non-native invasive arthropod species threaten biodiversity and food security worldwide, resulting in substantial economic, environmental, social and cultural costs. Classical biological control (CBC) is regarded as a cost-effective component of integrated pest management programmes to manage invasive arthropod pests sustainably. However, CBC programmes are traditionally conducted once a pest has established in a new environment, and invariably all research needed to achieve approval to release a biological control agent can take several years. During that time, adverse impacts of the pest accelerate. A pre-emptive biocontrol approach will provide the opportunity to develop CBC for invasive pests before they arrive in the country at risk of introduction and therefore enhance preparedness. A critical aspect of this approach is that risk assessment is carried out in advance of the arrival of the pest. Implementing pre-emptive biocontrol risk assessment means that natural enemies can be selected, screened in containment or abroad and potentially pre-approved prior to a pest establishing in the country at risk, thus improving CBC effectiveness. However, such an approach may not always be feasible. This contribution defines the fundamental prerequisites, principles, and objectives of pre-emptive biocontrol risk assessment. A set of guidelines and a decision framework were developed, which can be used to assess the feasibility of conducting a pre-emptive risk assessment for candidate biological control agents against high-risk arthropod pests.

Abstract AimClimate is a major driver of large scale variability in biodiversity, as a likely result of more intense biotic interactions under warmer conditions. This idea fuelled decades of research on plant-herbivore interactions, but much less is known about higher-level trophic interactions. We addressed this research gap by characterizing both bird diversity and avian predation along a climatic gradient at the European scale.LocationEurope.TaxonInsectivorous birds and pedunculate oaks.MethodsWe deployed plasticine caterpillars in 138 oak trees in 47 sites along a 19° latitudinal gradient in Europe to quantify bird insectivory through predation attempts. In addition, we used passive acoustic monitoring to (i) characterize the acoustic diversity of surrounding soundscapes; (ii) approximate bird abundance and activity through passive acoustic recordings and (iii) infer both taxonomic and functional diversity of insectivorous birds from recordings.ResultsThe functional diversity of insectivorous birds increased with warmer climates. Bird predation increased with forest cover and bird acoustic activity but decreased with mean annual temperature and functional richness of insectivorous birds. Contrary to our predictions, climatic clines in bird predation attempts were not directly mediated by changes in insectivorous bird diversity or acoustic activity, but climate and habitat still had independent effects on predation attempts.Main conclusionsOur study supports the hypothesis of an increase in the diversity of insectivorous birds towards warmer climates, but refutes the idea that an increase in diversity would lead to more predation and advocates for better accounting for activity and abundance of insectivorous birds when studying the large-scale variation in insect-tree interactions.

Global trade of plants and plant products facilitates the international movement of pests. The introduction of new pests in an area may have huge economic consequences for local plant production, and should be avoided. The European Union (EU) imports large quantities of fresh fruit from all over the world, which could be a pathway for exotic pests. This review aimed to identify pests not yet present or regulated in the EU that may enter the territory with the fruit trade and damage fruit production in Europe. Pests of Vaccinium (blueberry), apple, grape, orange and mandarin were screened to assess the likelihood of their being associated with these fruit, their impact, their geographical distribution, whether they are intercepted in trade and whether they are spreading or emerging. They were further ranked to produce alert lists of 30 to 36 pests for each fruit species. These lists are presented as well as other findings on contaminants and newly introduced pests. Datasheets on those pests were prepared and are available as supporting information to this article as well as in the EPPO Global Database (https://gd.eppo.int/). This work within the EU project DROPSA aimed to raise the awareness of importers and regulatory authorities to the potential risk of introducing pests with the fruit trade.

Abstract Biological invasions are a threat to biodiversity, society and the economy. There is an urgent need to provide evidence‐based assessments of the risks posed by invasive alien species (IAS) to prioritize action. Risk assessments underpin IAS policies in many ways: informing legislation; providing justification of restrictions in trade or consumer activities; prioritizing surveillance and rapid response. There are benefits to ensuring consistency in content of IAS risk assessments globally, and this can be achieved by providing a framework of minimum standards as a checklist for quality assurance. From a review of existing risk assessment protocols, and with reference to the requirements of the EU Regulation on IAS (1143/2014) and international agreements including the World Trade Organisation, Convention on Biological Diversity and International Plant Protection Convention, coupled with consensus methods, we identified and agreed upon 14 minimum standards (attributes) a risk‐assessment scheme should include. The agreed minimum standards were as follows: (1) basic species description; (2) likelihood of invasion; (3) distribution, spread and impacts; (4) assessment of introduction pathways; (5) assessment of impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems; (6) Assessment of impact on ecosystem services; (7) assessment of socio‐economic impacts; (8) consideration of status (threatened or protected) of species or habitat under threat; (9) assessment of effects of future climate change; (10) completion possible even when there is a lack of information; (11) documents information sources; (12) provides a summary in a consistent and interpretable form; (13) includes uncertainty; (14) includes quality assurance. In deriving these minimum standards, gaps in knowledge required for completing risk assessments and the scope of existing risk assessment protocols were revealed, most notably in relation to assessing benefits, socio‐economic impacts and impacts on ecosystem services but also inclusion of consideration of climate change. Policy implications. We provide a checklist of components that should be within invasive alien species risk assessments and recommendations to develop risk assessments to meet these proposed minimum standards. Although inspired by implementation of the European Union Regulation on invasive alien species, and as such developed specifically within a European context, the derived framework and minimum standards could be applied globally.

Abstract Ornamental horticulture is the primary pathway for invasive alien plant introductions. We critically appraise published evidence on the effectiveness of four policy instruments that tackle invasions along the horticulture supply chain: pre‐border import restrictions, post‐border bans, industry codes of conduct and consumer education. Effective pre‐border interventions rely on rigorous risk assessment and high industry compliance. Post‐border sales bans become progressively less effective when alien species become widespread in a region. A lack of independent performance evaluation and of public disclosure, limits the uptake and effectiveness of voluntary codes of conduct and discourages shifts in consumer preference away from invasive alien species. Policy implications. Closing the plant invasion pathway associated with ornamental horticulture requires government‐industry agreements to fund effective pre‐ and post‐border weed risk assessments that can be subsequently supported by widely adopted, as well as verifiable, industry codes of conduct. This will ensure producers and consumers make informed choices in the face of better targeted public education addressing plant invasions.

The EU project ‘DROPSA’ started in 2014 and aims to improve plant health strategies in the fruit sector. The project is being conducted by an international consortium of 26 partners consisting of phytosanitary organizations, companies, research institutes and universities and will last 50 months. Results will be disseminated via conventional publications and will be brought together in the development of risk‐based strategies to prevent the introduction of new fruit pests. This article describes the task related to the preparation of alert lists of pests that may be introduced into Europe with the trade of fruit. Activities of this task include the investigation of pathways of introduction for fruit pests into Europe, the development of alert lists for selected fruit crops and a review of current legislation. A review of introductions, interceptions and outbreaks that occurred during the last 10–15 years was conducted and is summarized, showing the relevance of fruit trade for the international movement of pests. Work has started on the development of alert lists for selected pathways. In this context, important fruit crops (including Malus, Vaccinium, Vitis, Citrus) were selected.

In 2011, EPPO conducted a survey among its member countries to re‐evaluate the status of 14 pests currently listed on the EPPO A2 List of pests recommended for regulation as quarantine pests: Cacoecimorpha pronubana, Cacyreus marshalli, Ciborinia camelliae, Dickeya (Erwinia) chrysanthemi pv. dianthicola, Frankliniella occidentalis, Impatiens necrotic spot virus, Leptinotarsa decemlineata, Phialophora cinerescens, Puccina horiana, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus, Raspberry ringspot virus, Tomato spotted wilt virus, Viteus vitifoliae, Xanthomonas fragariae. As a result of the survey, it was concluded that all these pests should be maintained on the A2 List.

Assessing the potential environmental impact of alien plants and plant pests is notoriously difficult. New protocols have been developed in the framework of the EC project PRATIQUE to provide guidance on environmental impact assessment in the EPPO pest risk analysis (PRA) decision‐support scheme and enhance consistency between risk assessors and risk ratings for different pests. A set of questions with rating guidance and examples is provided, and individual scores are summarized into final scores, using a hierarchy of risk matrices, to assess current and potential environmental impacts. Two separate protocols are available: for alien plants and for other pests. These protocols could also be used to assess environmental impact in other PRA schemes as well as to assign alien species to regional black lists or to prioritize species for management decisions.