International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development

Abstract. Hazard and risk from glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) in Bhutan have traditionally been assessed with limited consideration of the downstream exposure and vulnerability associated with individual lakes. However, exposure and vulnerability are key components of risk, and when explicitly attributed to each lake, can provide a more robust basis for prioritising hazard investigations and mitigation efforts. We modelled hypothetical GLOF scenarios for all glacial lakes with an area greater than 0.05 km2 and located within 1 km of a glacier terminus. We then determined GLOF risk by explicitly accounting for downstream impacts using depth–velocity outputs at each exposed element affected by the simulated GLOF from each lake, as well as the vulnerability of the affected community. Our study shows that approximately > 11 000 people, > 2500 buildings, > 250 km of road, > 400 bridges and ∼ 20 km2 of farmland are exposed to potential GLOF in Bhutan. We classified lake130 (Thorthormi Tsho) as a very high hazard glacial lake in Bhutan, five lakes as high hazard and 22 other lakes as moderate hazard. Among these high hazard glacial lakes, three of them: lake93 (Phudung Tsho), lake251, and lake278 (Wonney Tsho) were not recognised as being high hazard in previous studies. Five downstream local government administrative units (LGUs) were associated with very high GLOF risk, while eight others are associated with high GLOF risk. Five of these very high and high risk LGUs had not been previously documented as being at risk from GLOF. Our study underscores the significance of integrating potential inundation mapping and downstream exposure data to define high hazard glacial lakes. We recommend strengthening and expanding the existing GLOF preparedness and risk mitigation efforts in Bhutan, particularly in the LGUs, as having high GLOF risk identified in this study, to reduce potential future damage and loss.

Since the first glacier-wide mass balance measurement on Gara Glacier (India) in 1974, researchers have monitored 38 glaciers across the Himalaya.These glaciers show a mean wastage of -0.62 0.33 m w.e. a -1 , equivalent to a cumulative mass loss of -23.95 1.44 m w.e. over 1974-2023.The wastage strongly increased from -0.31 0.34 m w.e. a -1 pre-2000 to -0.66 0.33 m w.e. a -1 post-2000, indicating an acceleration of ~9 cm w.e. per decade since 1974.Only seven (Chhota Shigri, Hoksar, Mera, Pokalde, Rikha Samba, West Changri Nup, and Yala) glaciers meet the WGMS definition of benchmark glaciers, characterized by at least 10 years of continuous mass-balance observations.Glacier-wide mass balance analysis with geodetic estimates identifies Mera and Rikha Samba as representative of the central Himalaya, while Chhota Shigri for the western Himalaya.To honour the International Year of Glaciers' Preservation (IYGP) 2025, it is recommended to (i) use standardize methodologies for estimating random errors in glacier-wide mass balances, (ii) reanalyse mass balance series spanning ~10 years (iii) expand monitoring to underexplored regions like the Karakoram, Sikkim, Zanskar, and the Bhutanese Himalaya, (iv) continue monitoring of benchmark glaciers which is vital for understanding the climate change response.

Background: Women’s entrepreneurship is closely linked to women’s empowerment and entrepreneurial development, both of which play a vital role in driving economic growth. Understanding the determinants of women’s entrepreneurial empowerment is particularly important in developing economies like Nepal, where women’s participation in business activities remains limited despite growing policy attention. Purpose: The main objective of this study is to evaluate the factors influencing women’s entrepreneurial empowerment in the Kathmandu Valley. The research seeks to identify key determinants and assess how entrepreneurial development contributes to women’s empowerment within the local context. Design/methodology/approach: An explanatory research design was adopted, focusing on women entrepreneurs in the Kathmandu Valley as the study population. A purposive sampling method was applied to collect data from 309 respondents. The study draws on the Resource-Based Theory and Entrepreneurship Theory to analyze influencing factors. Both descriptive and inferential analyses were conducted using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM 4.0). Findings: The results show that most women entrepreneurs in Kathmandu are engaged in service-oriented businesses and often initiate their ventures without external credit but with strong family support. Major challenges identified include limited access to funding and difficulties balancing work and family responsibilities. The study highlights the need for targeted interventions such as training and education programs, improved financial access, mentorship opportunities, and networking initiatives. Furthermore, the findings indicate that women’s entrepreneurial development significantly influences women’s empowerment and mediates the relationship between technical know-how and empowerment. Conclusion: Women’s entrepreneurial development plays a crucial mediating role in enhancing women’s empowerment. Strengthening women’s access to resources, knowledge, and supportive networks can promote inclusive economic growth and sustainable entrepreneurship in Nepal. Keywords: Women Entrepreneurs; Resource-Based Theory; Smart PLS 4.0; Technical Know-How; Women Entrepreneurial Development

The snow and glacier-fed Swat River Basin (SRB), located in the Hindukush region of Pakistan, plays a vital role in supporting ecosystems and downstream communities. However, the basin is highly vulnerable to climate change, as evidenced by frequent historical floods. This study simulated historical and future snowmelt runoff using the Snowmelt Runoff Model (SRM), integrated with an enhanced MODIS snow and glacier product (MOYDGL06*), along with Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and hydro-meteorological data. The model was calibrated and validated over 2005–2009 and 2011–2015, respectively, using basin-wide and zone-wise simulation approach. The key findings of the study indicated: 1) SRM coupled with the improved snow product effectively simulated daily river discharge, achieving mean Nash–Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE) values of 0.90–0.91 and Volume Differences (D v ) of 0.51% to –1.31% during calibration, and NSE of 0.84–0.87 with D v of –0.83% to –2.27% during validation. The basin-wide approach performed more consistently due to integrated hydrological representation and lower parameter uncertainty. 2) Future projections under three RCP scenarios indicate increases of ~8–18% (2046–2065) and ~7–34% (2081–2100) in mean annual flow and increases of ~7–16% and ~7–30% in mean summer flow, respectively. An increase of 1 °C in temperature is projected to enhance both seasonal and annual flows by about 6–7%. These projected increases are primarily attributed to enhanced snow and glacier melt due to rising temperatures. The findings emphasize the need for adaptive strategies in water resources management and flood risk mitigation in the study area, especially under changing climatic conditions.

Abstract Background Okra ( Abelmoschus esculentus L.) is widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions, where its production is significantly constrained by insect pests. Among them, the jassid ( Amrasca biguttula biguttula ), a polyphagous pest with piercing-sucking mouthparts, causes serious yield losses. The experiments were conducted during the Kharif seasons (June to September) of 2023 and 2024 in the mid-hills of Nepal, using a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with five treatments and four replications to evaluate the efficacy of different biopesticides against jassid populations. The treatments comprised neem oil (1% EC), Jholmal (a locally prepared organic formulation), Trichoderma harzianum (1 × 10⁸ CFU/ml), Beauveria bassiana (1 × 10⁸ CFU/ml), and an untreated control. Results The highest jassid mortality was recorded in plots treated with T. harzianum , with reductions of 76.72 and 77.26% per plant at 7 days after the third spray during the 2023 and 2024 Kharif seasons, respectively. These reductions were statistically significant ( P < 0.01) compared to the other biopesticide treatments. In 2023, both neem oil and T. harzianum exhibited comparable efficacy after the first and third sprays, while in 2024, their effectiveness aligned during the first and second sprays. B. bassiana showed lower efficacy in the second and third sprays of 2023 but demonstrated improved performance in 2024, consistently reducing jassid populations compared to Jholmal and the control. Yield assessments revealed that T. harzianum -treated plots produced the highest okra yields of 18.73 t/ha in 2023 and 21.25 t/ha in 2024, while the untreated control consistently recorded the lowest yields of 8.75 t/ha and 8.00 t/ha, respectively. Conclusion Among the tested biopesticides, T. harzianum was the most effective in reducing jassid populations and enhancing okra yield under mid-hill conditions. These findings highlight the potential of T. harzianum as an eco-friendly alternative to chemical pesticides, promoting safer food, healthier soils, and sustainable pest management for resource-limited farmers in Nepal’s mid-hill regions.

Abstract. Our study focuses on Bhutan, a highly mountainous country where governmental authorities are increasingly monitoring air pollution. To support further analysis and the monitoring strategy, we present the first high-resolution air quality simulations with the chemistry transport model WRF-CHIMERE over the western region of Bhutan at a spatial resolution of roughly 1 km. Increasing the horizontal resolution of the model improve the performances, decreases potential errors due to too important spatial average of meteorological and emissions data having an high spatial variability. However, the air pollutant emissions must be improved at fine scale with better proxy, particularly for industries where improvement are still required. For the first time, we propose high resolution maps of air pollution (concentrations and deposition fields). Our simulations confirm that Bhutan valleys also suffer from air pollution mainly due to PM2.5 (concentrations exceeding 20 µg m−3) dominated by carbonaceous species, largely above the World Health Organization guidelines. Wildfires and anthropogenic activities release large amount of carbonaceous species and can also impact the glaciers by atmospheric fallout. Wildfires can locally contribute to 20 % of the total PM2.5 concentrations over a 15 days period, and theoretically, black carbon can be transported up to the highest peaks. Ecosystems are at risks with deposition fluxes of sulfur and nitrogen species comparable with other locations at risk in the world.

Madhesh Province, Nepal’s “Grain Basket,” is facing a severe and prolonged drought in mid-2025 due to deficient winter rains and weak monsoon performance. Rainfall deficits of 30–50% have critically reduced groundwater recharge, dried up more than 30% of boreholes, and caused widespread water shortages, especially in Mahottari, Dhanusha, and Siraha districts. Satellite data and ground reports show significant crop stress, with delayed rice transplantation (only 52% completed vs. 92% last year) and an estimated shortfall of 400,000–450,000 metric tons of rice, potentially cutting national rice supply by 10%. The crisis is already leading to income losses for farmers, rising food prices, and risks of large-scale food insecurity. The government has declared Madhesh a disaster zone and initiated emergency measures such as deep and shallow tubewell installations and small irrigation schemes. ICIMOD is supporting with Earth observation–based drought monitoring and technical advice. Recommendations include: Short-term: seed replacements, alternative irrigation (mobile pumps, drip, sprinklers), crop diversification, food and water aid, and health support. Long-term: direct seeding methods, sustainable groundwater recharge (nature-based solutions, canal rehabilitation, Sunkoshi Marin Diversion Project), crop diversification, and stricter Chure Hills conservation. The report calls for urgent, coordinated action among government, development partners, farmers, and scientific bodies to mitigate the crisis and strengthen climate resilience.