Russian State University of Justice

The article is dedicated to the interpretation of transactions. Its purpose is to provide a scholarly analysis of Russian and foreign legislation, legal theory, and law enforcement practice concerning the interpretation of civil transactions. The article’s objectives are: to examine the interpretation of contracts, inheritance agreements, and wills, and to address problems in their legal application. Research methods: analysis, formal legal, comparative legal. The article explores the legal framework governing the interpretation of contracts and wills within domestic and foreign legal systems, doctrinal positions, and relevant judicial practice. The study’s findings reveal both commonalities and divergences in the legal norms regulating the interpretation of contracts and wills in Russia, Belarus, Germany, Spain, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and a number of other countries. The author identifies the principal distinctions within Russian legislation on the interpretation of contracts versus wills, which lie in the subjects entitled to interpret them and the methods of interpretation employed. Consequently, the study concludes by proposing specific amendments to the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. Based on this research, the author concludes that it is advisable to introduce into the Civil Code of the Russian Federation a specific article on the interpretation of unilateral transactions, as well as Art. 1140.2, “Interpretation of an Inheritance Agreement”, which accounts for the dual legal nature of this type of contract. Furthermore, it is proposed to supplement Art. 1132 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation with a clause stating that if the literal meaning of a testamentary provision cannot be determined using the rules established in the first and second parts of this article, that provision shall be deemed non-existent. Finally, the author concludes that further research is needed on the interpretation of civil law transactions, as well as the improvement of legislation and its application in practice.

Currently, across all areas of societal organization and state activity in Russia, the rapid spread of innovative developments and digital technologies — automated data processing, cybernetics, and artificial intelligence — enabling high-speed information exchange makes it imperative to adopt digital transformation tools quickly and efficiently, not only for organizational functioning but also to support interaction among the main elements of the legal system. The fundamental concepts for the digital development of the judicial and law-enforcement systems, to be adopted in the near future, envisage interaction with civil society institutions — primarily human-rights organizations — to ensure the protection of citizens’ rights and freedoms and the interests of business entities. In the context of changing public relations, changes in legislation in the field of innovative and digital technologies, the trends in the development of modern judicial, as well as law enforcement and human rights systems in the field of integrated interaction will be directly related to their use for mutual exchange of experience, advanced training and ensuring intersystem interaction in the process of implementing the target functions provided for by legislation and fulfilling the tasks set by the state and society.

The author analyzes the problems of the relationship between such concepts as “medical care” and “medical service”, which have long caused debate. It is revealed that, taking into account the clarification of the law on the protection of consumer rights by the highest court, its norms should be applied to any relationship in the field of medical activity, despite the fact that the assistance itself is provided to the patient formally free of charge. Nevertheless, the medical organization receives compensation from those funds that are formed indirectly from the income of citizens - the entire working population of the Russian Federation. All this gives the right to understand a medical service as part of a complex of actions (manipulations) that are performed within the framework of medical care and are of a reimbursable nature, therefore, those strict liability measures that the legislation on the protection of consumer rights provides for should be applied. It is noted that practice has taken such a path that when medical care is provided on the basis of a compulsory health insurance program, the law on the protection of consumer rights should not be applied. Moreover, despite the presence or absence of an agreement between a medical organization and a patient, the services themselves are not provided free of charge, and the agreement that is concluded with a medical organization (an agreement in favor of a third party - the patient) does not allow the relationship with a medical organization to be considered free of charge. It is concluded that the problem of the relationship between the concepts of “medical care” and “medical service” is considered in the law as general and specific, and the general regime of legal regulation should be applied to them. Legislation on the protection of consumer rights should apply to those and other legal relations that are recognized as compensatory for the medical organization itself. Our conclusions are confirmed by the preamble of the law on the protection of consumer rights, which indicates the subjects of relations to which this law applies - this is an organization, regardless of its form, and a consumer who receives a service on the basis of a paid contract for the organization, and the difference in the case of medical care is only in the source of financing.

This article analyzes surrogacy as a complex phenomenon situated at the intersection of bioethics, medicine, and law. It highlights contemporary challenges associated with the use of assisted reproductive technologies (ART) and exposes contradictions between the child’s right to know their genetic origins, the protection of surrogate mother autonomy, and the prevention of reproductive commercialization. Particular attention is paid to the legal regulation of surrogacy in Russia: definitions and main types of surrogacy are considered, and ethical and legal aspects of dividing commercial and non-commercial models are examined. The article includes a comparative analysis of international approaches to surrogacy regulation.

Introduction. Questions concerning the emergence and evolution of medieval state-legal terminology in Russia have long been of interest not only to legal historians, but also to other humanitarian scholars. To date, no unified approach has been developed to define the semantics of the terms of this group, as well as its changes in the process of evolutionary development. Among other things, the most acute discussions in Russia and abroad are about the form of government that existed throughout the Middle Ages in both the Russian state and Byzantium. Serious disagreements persist between scientists from various branches of the humanities and in the definitions of other elements of the form of the state – the form of the state structure and the state regime. Theoretical Basis. Methods. The article examines medieval monuments of the history of political and legal thought of Russia and the terminology used in them in relation to Byzantine sources. To obtain a scientific result, general logical techniques, comparative historical, systematic, dogmatic and hermeneutic research methods are used. Results. The authors critically analyze the fundamental concepts used in the works of medieval thinkers of Russia and Byzantium, and emphasize the need for a correct definition of their essential features. Discussion and Conclusion. The application of the modern conceptual and categorical apparatus to the Middle Ages is unacceptable without appropriate argumentation. If, when analyzing the form of the state dating back to the distant past, we use the achievements and tools of modern science, the theory of state and law, while taking into account the terminological features of the conceptual apparatus of medieval thinkers and legislators, it is possible to achieve the most adequate understanding of the organization of state power.

The purpose of the study is to assess the impact of fitness ballet (functional ballet), integrated into physical education classes at a higher educational institution, on the physical fitness and psycho-emotional state of female students. Research methods and organization. The research methods used included theoretical analysis of specialized literature, pedagogical observation, surveys, pedagogical testing, pedagogical experiments, and mathematical data processing. The study was conducted at the Moscow campus of the Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration with the participation of first- to third-year female students. Research results and conclusions. The curriculum for the discipline "Elective Courses in Physical Education and Sports", which includes elements of fitness ballet (functional ballet) and was integrated into the students' training process, allowed for a targeted impact on improving female students' physical fitness levels and psycho-emotional state during a seven-month pedagogical experiment. Statistically significant improvements in the students' psycho-emotional condition were observed. The use of fitness ballet (functional ballet) elements within the framework of the discipline "Elective Courses in Physical Education and Sports" is an effective approach that contributes to improving physical condition and enhancing students' adaptation to physical exercise.

The current aspects of the administrative and legal status of an official in Russia are considered. It is concluded that this institution has gone through a long development path. His important, and in some cases, leading role in building a legal, democratic state in modern Russia is noted. Attention is focused on the leading role of the administrative and legal status of an official in the realization of constitutional rights and freedoms in a rule-of-law democratic state.

The author compares the criminal legislation of Russia and Serbia, examining variousspecialized issues related to homicide, with a focus on matters of personal security. The aim ofthe work is to identify features of statistical accounting, as well as to compare approaches toestablishing types and limits of punishment and accounting for mitigating and aggravatingcircumstances. Particular attention is paid to the consideration of qualified types of homicidecharacterized by increased public danger. The author proposes recognizing the commission ofhomicide by a particularly dangerous repeat offender or drug addict as an aggravating circumstanceof murder. The author provides recommendations for the statistical accounting of homicides inour country.

Aim. To study the features of concluding a loan agreement, the similarities and differences between the terms of a loan agreement and a credit agreement. Methodology. The research was carried out using methods of system and logical analysis.Results. This present paper examines the conditions, forms and subjects, obligations of the parties to a loan and credit agreements, and identifies the main differences between these agreements. It analyzes judicial practice concerning the complexity of determining the terms of agreements.Research implications. Both specific definition and limitation of the terms of a loan and credit agreement could help protect the rights of a parties from the terms of the counterparties’ agreement, thereby implementing and protecting the principles enshrined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation.

The relevance of this study topic stems from the growing importance of a municipal budget as a key instrument of financial management, ensuring sustainable socio-economic development of the territory and improving the quality of life for the local population. Under current conditions of decentralisation of power and the transfer of significant powers to the level of local self-government, in-depth and systematic analysis of a municipal budget becomes particularly significant. Such analysis makes it possible to identify reserves for optimising expenditure, increasing revenue, and enhancing financial autonomy. Using the example of the budget of the city of Blagoveshchensk, the research gains additional significance given its strategic geographical location, the active development of a cross-border agglomeration with the city of Heihe, and the implementation of large-scale investment projects that affect budgetary processes. The study object is the budget of the city of Blagoveshchensk as an integral part of the financial system of the municipality. The study subject is the structure of the revenue and expenditure parts of the budget, the dynamics of their changes, factors influencing the formation and execution of the budget, as well as an assessment of the effectiveness of the city’s budgetary policy. The study aims to perform a comprehensive analysis of the revenue and expenditure parts of the budget of Blagoveshchensk, to identify the main trends and problems in its formation and execution, and to evaluate the impact of ongoing municipal programmes and investment projects on the city's financial sustainability. The study methods include comparative and structural analysis, methods of statistical data processing, regulatory and legal analysis, as well as a systemic approach to studying the budget process and the factors influencing it. The authors conclude that the steady increase in the revenue part of the budget, achieved through the growth of tax and non-tax revenues, as well as gratuitous receipts from higher-level budgets, has made it possible not only to maintain the stability of the city’s financial system but also to end the year with a budget surplus of 390,084.9 thousand roubles. Priority in budget expenditure has been given to the implementation of municipal programmes aimed at improving the quality of life of the population, developing urban infrastructure, and supporting education, culture, and sport. A significant place is occupied by measures related to the implementation of the “May” decrees of the President of the Russian Federation, which underlines the social orientation of the budgetary policy.