Сотрудничество Китая и Центральной Азии в области возобновляемой энергетики

Asian economies are often characterized as having bank-dominated financial systems and underdeveloped capital markets, in particular with regard to venture capital. In economies that banks are the main source of funding, the main obstacle for financing infrastructural projects including renewable energy (RE) projects is lack of access to long-term finance. The second obstacle for development of RE energy projects is their lower rate of return comparing to fossil fuel projects as more subsidies are globally going to fossil fuels. For larger RE projects insurance and pensions are sustainable financing alternatives. Pension funds and insurance companies hold long-term savings, so these institutions could be a proper alternative for financing mega-size RE projects. In addition, utilizing the spillover effects originally created by energy supplies in form of tax revenues refund to RE projects will increase their rate of return and make them interesting for private investors. For smaller-size RE projects, the paper provides a theoretical model for combining utilisation of carbon tax and a new way of financing risky capital, i.e., Hometown Investment Trust Funds (HITs). The paper theoretically shows that by environmental taxation and allocating these tax revenues to HITs, RE projects will become more feasible and more interesting for private investors; hence the supply of investment money to these funds will increase.

Geoscientific research plays a crucial role in shaping renewable energy policies and promoting ecological balance. This review explores the impact of geoscientific research on renewable energy policies and its role in ecological balancing. Geoscientific research provides valuable insights into the geological and environmental factors that influence the feasibility and sustainability of renewable energy projects. By studying the earth's processes, geoscientists can identify suitable locations for renewable energy installations, assess potential risks, and develop strategies to mitigate environmental impacts. One of the key ways in which geoscientific research influences renewable energy policies is through its contribution to resource assessment. Geoscientists use various techniques, such as geological mapping, geophysical surveys, and remote sensing, to identify and quantify renewable energy resources, such as solar, wind, and geothermal energy. This information is essential for policymakers to develop effective policies that promote the development and utilization of renewable energy sources. Furthermore, geoscientific research plays a crucial role in ecological balancing by providing insights into the environmental impacts of renewable energy projects. By studying the interactions between renewable energy installations and the surrounding environment, geoscientists can identify potential ecological risks and develop strategies to minimize them. This information is essential for policymakers to develop policies that ensure the sustainable development of renewable energy projects while protecting the environment. In conclusion, geoscientific research plays a crucial role in shaping renewable energy policies and promoting ecological balance. By providing valuable insights into renewable energy resources and their environmental impacts, geoscientists help policymakers develop effective policies that promote the sustainable development of renewable energy projects.

The share of renewable energy sources (RES) in the global energy system is systematically increasing, making them the most important element of the energy transformation. Their use enables rational management of limited resources, reduction of environmental pollution, and has a significant inhibitory effect on energy poverty by improving energy efficiency. The aim of this article is to assess the impact of the use of renewable energy on the level of energy poverty in the European Union countries in 2010, 2015, and 2022. A taxonomic measure of development based on the Weber median was used to examine the relationship between the results achieved by individual EU member states in terms of the impact of the use of renewable energy on the level of energy poverty. The research results clearly indicate the existence of disproportions between the countries of the “old” EU and the countries that joined it in 2004 and later. These disproportions concern both the use of energy obtained from renewable sources and energy poverty. In the countries of the “old” Union, a positive moderate relationship was identified between the use of renewable energy and energy poverty, which means that a higher share of the use of energy from renewable sources in these countries reduces energy poverty. In the countries of the “new” Union, however, this relationship was very weak (2010) or non-existent. Since the renewable energy sector is subject to government policy and regulations, the results presented in this paper should be of interest to decision-makers. A stable, long-term policy should provide an appropriate investment climate that provides support for renewable energy projects and reduces the level of energy poverty.

This study examines China’s energy security strategy in Central Asia through the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and Green BRI. The examination extends while integrating two theories, i.e., Energy Securitization and Complex Interdependence. By analyzing China’s investments in renewable and non-renewable energy projects, this research assesses how they enhance regional connectivity, foster economic cooperation, and contribute to China’s energy security. A strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis reveals both the strengths and weaknesses of China’s energy strategy, highlighting opportunities for sustainable development and challenges posed by geopolitical factors. The findings suggest that while the BRI is a critical tool for China’s energy security, careful strategic planning and collaboration with Central Asian countries are essential to mitigate risks and maximize benefits. The study acknowledges the complex interplay of economic, political, and environmental constraints and concludes by highlighting the need for joint policy initiatives to promote mutual energy security, sustainability, and regional stability.

This paper outlines to explore the influencing factors of unachieved target of the energy mix from renewable energy (RE) sources in Indonesia, to develop an integrated Islamic blended finance model for financing RE projects in Indonesia, and to analyse the costs and benefits of the proposed model. This research employs an exploratory sequential mixed method with the qualitative phase through in-depth interviews and Focus Group Discussions (FGD) and quantitative phases using primary and secondary data to simulate the Agent-Based Model (ABM) of the proposed model. The paper found three main financing issues on RE sector in Indonesia, including high investment costs and long payback period of RE projects, high risk perception to finance RE projects, and the uncertainty of investment return for RE developers. Besides, based on ABM simulation, Islamic blended finance can contribute to reduce the required period to achieve the energy mix target. Despite the less familiarity of Islamic finance instrument for the RE sector, an initial of a pilot project in place of the proposed business model might increase common awareness regarding this potential. Hence, policy implication delivered in this paper should be a key component to scale up RE sector via Islamic blended finance instrument.

Reduction of greenhouse gas emission levels in China is of great importance, because of their significant growth. Development of renewable energy sources is a key to the sustainable development of China while pursuing the low GHG emissions goals. In the paper, we present an overview of the development in the renewable energy sources (RES) in the Western Region of China (WRC). We analyze the abundant renewable energy resources in WRC with different energy specifications. We focus on China's WRC as the most important region for development of renewable energy in the future years. Due to its diversity in RES sources and different RES support initiatives, Western Region could serve as a testing ground for wider application of a uniform RES support policy in China. We analyze two cases of Chinese experience with RES support policy based on Tibet and Sichuan provinces located in West Region of China. We identify various barriers and success factors to promote RES development in WRC. We also review the current policy mechanisms, especially investment- or generation- based price-driven and capacity-driven mechanisms, ranging from investment incentives for the development of renewable energy projects, feed-in tariffs, production tax incentives, tendering systems, and quota obligations based on tradable green certificates. Based on European Union experience, we propose policy measures to stimulate RES development in WRC and present some instruments for its implementation.

This study investigates the impact of non-renewable energy production, renewable energy production, and population size on per capita greenhouse gas emissions in Central Asian (CA) countries over the period 2000–2024, utilizing the Panel ARDL–PMG (Pooled Mean Group) estimation technique. The analysis provides both long-run and short-run country-specific insights into the determinants of emissions, offering a nuanced understanding of environmental dynamics in the region. The long-run results reveal that non-renewable energy production is positively and significantly associated with per capita greenhouse gas emissions, indicating that reliance on fossil fuels continues to drive environmental degradation. In contrast, renewable energy production is found to have a negative long-run effect, suggesting that investments in clean energy sources can effectively mitigate emissions over time. Population size also exhibits a negative long-run association with per capita emissions, reflecting potential demographic influences on energy consumption patterns. Short-run estimates demonstrate heterogeneous effects across countries: in two Central Asian nations, non-renewable energy production substantially increases per capita emissions, whereas in the other two, it reduces emissions. Similarly, renewable energy production has a positive short-run impact in three countries, a negative impact in one, and an insignificant effect in another. These findings underscore the importance of recognizing country-specific dynamics and adopting tailored energy and environmental policies. The study contributes to regional policy discussions by highlighting the need for a balanced transition towards renewable energy while addressing the unique socio-economic contexts of each country.

BackgroundAchieving climate targets will require a rapid transition to clean energy. However, renewable energy (RE) firms face financial, policy, and economic barriers to mobilizing sufficient investment in low-carbon technologies, especially in low- and middle-income countries. Here, we analyze the challenges and successes of financing the energy transition in Nigeria and Brazil using three empirically grounded levers: financing environments, channels, and instruments.ResultsWhile Brazil has leveraged innovative policy instruments to mobilize large-scale investment in RE, policy uncertainty and weak financing mechanisms have hindered RE investments in Nigeria. Specifically, Brazil’s energy transition has been driven by catalytic finance from the Brazilian Development Bank (BNDES). In contrast, bilateral agencies and multilateral development banks (MDBs) have been the largest financiers of renewables in Nigeria. Policy instruments and public–private partnerships need to be redesigned to attract finance and scale market opportunities for RE project developers in Nigeria.ConclusionsWe conclude that robust policy frameworks, a dynamic public bank, strategic deployment of blended finance, and diversification of financing instruments would be essential to accelerate RE investment in Nigeria. Considering the crucial role of donors and MDBs in Nigeria, we propose a multi-stakeholder model to consolidate climate finance and facilitate the country’s energy transition.

To ensure adequate oil supply and mitigate geopolitical uncertainties, China has diversified its sources of crude oil imports in recent years. Central Asia is a neighbor region of China, rich in oil and natural gas reserves, which can play an important role in China’s strategy to reduce its dependence on energy supplies from the Middle East. The geopolitical attributes of energy and the geopolitical situation in Central Asia determine that Central Asia’s energy development and cooperation are disturbed by domestic and foreign factors, and also face the risks of complex energy structural evolution and geopolitical games, which create a unique energy geopolitical pattern in Central Asia. This study proposes an analysis framework for energy geopolitics in Central Asia, arguing that the complexity of energy geopolitics in Central Asia can be demonstrated from the perspectives of both the main countries of energy development (game actors) and the whole-industry-chain of energy development (game themes). The most obvious feature of Central Asian energy geopolitics is the fierce game that is played between key countries and regions, Russia, the United States, China, the European Union (EU), Japan, India, Iran, and Turkey. Strategic geopolitical considerations and resource requirements necessitate the active participation of these players in Central Asian energy development and mean that the foreign policy agendas of states in this region are likely to become ever more crowded. Therefore, the energy cooperation between China and Central Asia faces the geopolitical risks of the great power games. It is necessary to develop reasonable and effective policies to establish guarantee mechanisms to minimize the risks of energy cooperation. This study characterizes the energy geopolitical strategies of Russia, the United States, China, and other related powers in Central Asia. It also assesses the country risks faced by energy cooperation between China and Central Asian countries. To withstand possible geopolitical and country risks, this study develops a series of policy frameworks which can be used to fortify the stability of the energy cooperation between China and Central Asian countries, and can also be effective in responding to the array of risks that might be encountered in the coming years.

Today, there is a lot of focus on using renewable energy sources to address climate change and achieve sustainable development goals. This paper investigates the non-linear relationship between financial development (FIDI), economic complexity (EC), R&D investment as a control variable on renewable energy transition. FIDI’s vital role in facilitating investment in renewable energy (RE) projects has been identified. To reduce the cost of RE projects and attract more investors. Developed financial systems facilitate RE deployment by providing access to diverse financing mechanisms, such as green bonds and project finance. This is evident in countries like Australia, where a robust financial sector has supported substantial investments in solar and wind energy projects. This research investigates the nonlinear effects of FIDI on renewable energy use. It can be acknowledged that economic complexity, which is evaluated by the diversity and complexity of a country’s export products, affects the adoption of RE technologies. Can countries with higher ECs that tend to develop more advanced industrial capabilities and know-how support the development of RE solutions? On the other hand, another factor that makes use of RE is investment in research and development. Research and innovation in clean energy technologies will drive down costs, improve productivity, and produce new developments that can make RE competitive with fossil fuels. Countries investing in RE research and development have faster adoption rates and greater market penetration. Data from OECD countries in the years 2000 to 2022 show that, at the 5% confidence level, the use of RE follows a U-shaped curve with respect to financial development (using quadratic regression analysis, both the coefficients of the linear and square terms are statistically significant. These findings confirm a U-shaped relationship between FIDI and RE). Our results suggest that the increase in economic complexity may deter, at an initial stage, the transition toward renewable energy, but it can indeed be substantially expedited through strategic R&D investments. Therefore, we recommend that policymakers should invest in infrastructure that secures diversification in the energy sector and lowers adverse complexity effects and massively increase public funding for renewable energy R&D, stimulate private–public partnerships in this regard, and establish very clear rules and regulations to maximize innovation effects in renewable energy deployment. These would be critical steps in rapidly achieving a low-carbon economy and realizing sustainable development goals.

The development of renewable energy (RE) projects is closely tied to the financial attractiveness of these investments. Despite the extensive literature, most studies focus on a static analysis, which is no longer adequate for dealing properly with the uncertainty associated with RE projects. This study proposes a stochastic model based on the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) and the application of VaR (value at risk) and CvaR (conditional value at risk) measures for risk assessment. Using a hypothetical case consisting of a solar farm with a rated capacity of 10 MWp, the analysis was conducted for nine Colombian municipalities. The irradiation levels at each site were considered the sole source of uncertainty. In addition, the Colombian regulatory framework was considered, represented by accounting and tax benefits. The results obtained from this work made it possible to evaluate the effect of resource behavior on the financial risk level of PV projects. The results provide a ranking of the nine assessed municipalities from a financial point of view and highlight the influence of considering solar resources as a risk factor on the project´s financial expected performance.

This chapter examines the cooperation between two Central Asian countries – Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan – with China within the framework of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). This chapter aims to clarify several components of this cooperation. Firstly, taking a realist approach, this chapter discusses the nature of the BRI, China’s goals in establishing it, and the main goals of the two Central Asian countries in participating in the initiative. Secondly, it analyses the cooperation between China and Kyrgyzstan and China and Tajikistan within the BRI and the impacts of this and opportunities for the development of the two Central Asian countries. Thirdly, it analyses the challenges and issues arising for the two Central Asian countries under the BRI, such as debt risks, ecological problems, and political and social disruptions in the forms of increasing Sinophobia, public protests, and negative reactions among the local populace to Chinese projects. It concludes with a discussion of the benefits and challenges faced by the two Central Asian countries and the BRI as a result of the cooperation.

This paper uses data for the period 1950–2050 compiled by the United Nations Population Division together with methods including spatial autocorrelation analysis, hierarchical cluster analysis and the standard deviational ellipse, to analyze the spatio-temporal evolution of population and urbanization in the 75 countries located along the routes of the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st-century Maritime Silk Road, to identify future population growth and urbanization hotspots. The results reveal the following: First, in 2015, the majority of Belt and Road countries in Europe, South Asia and Southeast Asia had high population densities, whereas most countries in Central Asia, North Africa and West Asia, as well as Russia and Mongolia, had low population densities; the majority of countries in South Asia, Southeast Asia, Central Asia, West Asia and North Africa had rapid population growth, whereas many countries in Europe had negative population growth; and five Belt and Road countries are in the initial stage of urbanization, 44 countries are in the acceleration stage of urbanization, and 26 are in the terminal stage of urbanization. Second, in the century from 1950 to 2050, the mean center of the study area’s population is consistently located in the border region between India and China. Prior to 2000, the trajectory of the mean center was from northwest to southeast, but from 2000 it is on a southward trajectory, as the population of the study area becomes more concentrated. Future population growth hotspots are predicted to be in South Asia, West Asia and Southeast Asia, and hotspot countries for the period 2015–2030 include India, China, Pakistan and Indonesia, though China will move into negative population growth after 2030. Third, the overall urban population of Belt and Road countries increased from 22% in 1950 to 49% in 2015, and it is expected to gradually catch up with the world average, reaching 64% in 2050. The different levels of urbanization in different countries display significant spatial dependency, and in the hundred-year period under consideration, this dependency increases before eventually weakening. Fourth, between 2015 and 2030, urban population hotspots will include Thailand, China, Laos and Albania, while Kuwait, Cyprus, Qatar and Estonia will be urban “coldspots.” Fifth, there were 293 cities with populations over 1 million located along the Belt and Road in 2015, but that number is expected to increase to 377 by 2030. Of those, 43 will be in China, with many of the others located in India, Indonesia and the eastern Mediterranean.

Objectives : The world is getting more polluted day by day and living conditions are getting harder and harder. The Covid 19 process explains this situation even better. Global warming will show its effect more heavily if measures are not taken. There is a close relationship between global warming and the type and method of energy used. The use of fossil fuels by people pollutes the environment too much, and the use of alternative energy sources is gaining importance instead. Here, the issue of use and management of renewable energy sources comes to the fore. Turkey is a country with rich renewable energy resources and experience in cooperatives. In this study, it is aimed to reveal the current situation and problems of renewable energy cooperatives, which can be a model for managing Turkey’s renewable energy resources.Methods : In the study, a literature review method was used by examining domestic and foreign resources related to renewable energy and renewable energy cooperatives. Some of the data obtained were arranged in tables and used in the study.Results and Discussion : It is very important for Turkey to develop renewable energy resources and increase the share of renewable energy resources among other resources. Because Turkey is a developing country and its population is increasing day by day. It is essential to use renewable energy for the energy need of the increasing population and the least environmental pollution. Within the scope of 2023 targets in Turkey, it is planned to produce 34 thousand MW of hydroelectric, 20 thousand MW of wind energy, solar energy, 5 thousand MW, 1,000 MW of geothermal energy and 1,000 MW of geothermal energy and biomass energy. In order to achieve this goal, it is planned to invest approximately 60 billion dollars in renewable energy sources. Cooperatives are one of the most effective ways in which Turkey can use its renewable energy resources. Because cooperative is a method known to the Turkish society and it would be beneficial to transfer it to the renewable energy field.Conclusion Turkey is a developing country and its energy needs are increasing day by day. It is very important to use the renewable energy resources it has correctly and in a planned way. In this respect, it should be understood that renewable energy cooperatives are quite compatible with Turkey. Turkey should provide the necessary legal and administrative structure for the development of renewable energy cooperatives and develop it with financial support in order to make its increasing energy needs sustainable.

Global climate change demands a rapid transition to renewable energy for sustainable development and carbon neutrality. However, existing frameworks often overlook the dynamics of renewable energy use across production, consumption, final production, and income perspectives of the economy, thereby limiting understanding of global energy transitions. This study addresses this gap using a multi regional input-output (MRIO) model to analyze renewable energy use globally from 2000 to 2021 through multiple perspectives. Our findings reveal significant disparities in renewable energy use across countries. The United States is the largest renewable energy user by four perspectives in 2021, while per capita renewable energy use reveals pronounced disparities, with heavily populated countries like China and India having notably low use levels. Furthermore, resource-exporting countries, as primary suppliers for global renewable energy, promote renewable energy use, making a substantial contribution to the energy transition. Sectoral analysis highlights the significance of electricity, gas, and water industries in renewable energy use. This study provides a comprehensive framework for analyzing renewable energy use, offering valuable insights to policymakers to accelerate equitable and sustainable energy transitions.