Тенденции неологизации глагольной лексики в старорусском языке (XV–XVII вв.)

The vocabulary of the Ukrainian language of the XVIth–XVIIth centurу as a systemic dynamic phenomenon was studied in the thesis basing on Ukrainian-language written sources of various styles and genres, a set of techniques was selected and applied, a number of new approaches to the analysis of the time dynamics of vocabulary was proposed. It is stressed that the most noticeable are changes of vocabulary and semantics due to the verbalization of the dynamics of the culture of society – the transformations in the material-subject and production spheres, intercessions of some social and cultural dominants. It is accentuated that an important factor in the dynamics of the Ukrainian language is its interaction with the other languages, that leads to the changes in the structure of language elements, their interconnections and their functions. The correlation between dynamics and statics in the vocabulary of the Ukrainian language of the XIth–XVth century and XVIth–XVIIth century is determined, combinations of various changes of the lexical system of the Ukrainian language are characterised. Changes appear in the formation of new values of specific or borrowed lexemes as a result of metonymic transformations, semantic attraction, entering into constant phrases or cliché expressions, generalization or specialization of meanings, emergence of connotative, estimative elements of semantics. Functional reduction of the word, its absence in the written sources of the next period in comparison with the previous stage of the existence in language testifies deactualization of the notion in the language model of the world, as well as intercession of an older lexeme by a new nomination – specific or borrowed. The regularities of the expansion of the Ukrainian vocabulary due to foreign-language influences are discovered, the factors that influenced the degree of saturation of thematic and lexical-semantic groups are outlined. The architectonics of the lexical system and its conceptual organization as a reproduction of the contemporary language model of the world of Ukrainian people are revealed. The formal and semantic derivation of nominative units, adaptation of borrowings to the structure of the recipient language are analized. Dynamics of the formal structure of the vocabulary is connected with a change in the meaning of the primary lexeme. Formal derivation establishes motivational and word-formation models, outlines productive ones for the appropriate period of language development. According to the sources of the XVIth–XVIIth century both non-hybrid (monolingual) and hybrid derivatives are present there. Analysis of derivatives of foreign genesis, the history of their appearance in the Ukrainian language of the XVIth–XVIIth century, as well as the study of the functioning of borrowings in the language allowed to estimate hypothetically the place of derivation (in the source language, intermediate language, recipient language); complexity of genesis estimation of derivatives associated with the presence of common affixes and word-formation models for interacting languages. For many lexemes the time of their appearance in the Ukrainian language is specified, assumptions about time and conditions of borrowings are verified. For the study of the history of borrowings it is important to find out the history of functioning of the corresponding lexemes in the source language and intermediate languages, and their timing appearance (moment of entry), distribution and adaptation in the recipient language. Determination of the moment, the time of „birth” – appearance and rooting – of the borrowings foresees the proof of the absence of written fixation of an appropriate lexeme in older written sources. The conditional identification of the time of the first fixation and the time of borrowing allowed to find out lexemes for which the time of borrowing can be set: for such date a year / relative chronological sign, which is indicated in the written source, or exactly the year of writing a memorial are accepted. For a series of lexemes relative chronological characteristics (indication of time period from the interval of one year to another or the corresponding century) are proposed. Application of methods of determining the time of the appearance of lexeme based on the history of the designated reality contributed to the definition of borrowings that nominate the notion of material culture, the history of which is clearly established, or the time before which these borrowings could not appear in the recipient language. It was clarified that the chronology of foreign language nominatives contributes to clarification of the sources of borrowing, in particular, for alternative explanations available in science. An important role in determining the chronological characteristics of the lexemes has the information about the peculiarities of the analyzed lexemes’ functionning in the potential intermediary languages.

In this chapter, we explore and discuss the possibilities and challenges in the language learning environment for children under 3 years old who have low language skills. We build on data from two doctoral theses focused on educational language practices, language development, play and social functioning in the early childhood years, here within a Norwegian early childhood education and care (ECEC) context. The early childhood years are a sensitive period in language development, and international research indicates that early experiences matter for long-term educational and social development. In Norway, ECEC coverage for toddlers is over 80%, thus making ECECs an important language learning arena. The features from two PhD thesis conducted in Norway are presented and discussed in this chapter. The results from the two studies show that there are variations in children’s language development that explain their participation in play. Moreover, the results show that ECEC staff provide children with few language learning opportunities that are assumed to promote language development. We highlight the importance of the quality of the language learning environment in securing progression and development for late talkers.KeywordsLate talkersLanguage learningNorwayEarly childhood

Object knowledge and the emergence of language

By a focus on three essential elements of language, phonology, semantics, and syntax, a time frame for critical/sensitive periods of language development is presented as a model of central auditory nervous system flexibility. Several studies support the hypothesis that the critical/sensitive period of phonology is from the sixth month of fetal life through the 12th month of infancy. Data indicates that the critical/sensitive periods for syntax runs through the fourth year of life, and for semantics through the 15th or 16th year of life. The data indicate that there is a time dependent series of functions in sequence that is based on responsive adaptations made by the CNS to psychophysical and electrophysiological stimuli.

By a focus on three essential elements of language: phonology, semantics, and syntax, a time frame for critical/sensitive periods of language development is presented as a model of central auditory nervous system flexibility. Several studies support the hypothesis that the critical/sensitive period of phonology is from the 6th month of fetal life through the 12th month of infancy. Data indicate that the critical/sensitive periods for syntax run through the 4th year of life, and for semantics through the 15th or 16th year of life. The data indicate that there is a time dependent series of functions in sequence that is based on responsive adaptations made by the CNS to pyschophysical and electrophysiological stimuli.

The article discusses the problems of modern linguodidactics, which attaches great importance to the cultural component of the content of education. The development of society is characterized by an increasing interest in the development of national languages and cultures. In the independent states of the CIS, a special role in the development of languages and cultures is played by the functioning of the Russian language, which, due to objective historical, social and linguistic factors, continues to play the role of means of interethnic communication among the peoples inhabiting these states. Accounting for native culture in teaching Russian is a subject of great attention and growing interest of researchers. Interlingual dialogue as one of the ways to improve the efficiency of teaching Russian language, as a means of bringing together different national minds can fully develop only with the integrated use of data from different sciences.

Recently transposition became the issue of many research papers for being a complicated and sophisticated language phenomenon, and its definition has been broadened. The issue of transposition and the degrees of verb transitivity are the most controversial and difficult ones both in Hungarian and Russian linguistics. This issue may be investigated on different language levels: lexical, syntactic, morphological and on the level of word formation. Taking into account the mobility of parts of speech boundaries in the compared languages we attempt to find the cause of words transitioning from one lexico-grammatical class into another, investigate transposition as a natural phenomenon both for the Hungarian and Russian languages, differentiate transition in parts of the speech system from other language phenomena, solve some contentious issues regarding parts of speech, for example ‘noun-adjective’ relations, and others. Despite having extensive literature concerning nominalization in Russian linguistics and some works in Hungarian linguistics, some aspects are not comprehensively covered in them. For example, different types of transitions from other parts of speech into nouns, thorough semantic and thematic categorization of substantivized words, characteristics of their functioning in texts of different functional styles, principles of creating lexicography, etc. In this article we compare the process of substantivation amidst the system of parts of speech in languages of such different structure as Hungarian and Russian. Comprehensive and comparative study of the process of transition of other parts of speech into nouns allows us to conduct a deeper investigation of each of these languages’ structure and also to reveal typological similarities and differences between them. These languages have not been explored this way so it provides scientific novelty to the research. For the first time we define the main conditions of a systematic process of transposition in Hungarian and Russian and reveal both specific and universal opportunities for transition in the compared languages. We use comparative analysis for researching semantic models of substantivized words, distinguish different types of transitions into nouns and describe structural and stylistic features. Thus, the topic of the research is the grammatical, semantic, structural and stylistic features of substantivized words in Hungarian and Russian. The objective of the study is to discover linguistic nature of substantivation of adjectives, verbs and verbal formations, numerals and pronouns, to find out specific and universal features caused by typological differences of the researched languages. To achieve this goal we need to solve the following problems: determining the place of substantivation in the system of word formation in Hungarian and Russian, discovering how much substantivation and conversion being productive ways of word formation are identical in Russian and Hungarian, distinguishing semantic models of substantivized words and compare them, comparing models of usual and occasional substantivation and determine its productivity, studying their structure which means showing peculiarities of substantivized words’ grammatical structure in Hungarian and Russian, discovering similarities and differences between them and finding adequate models. The research is based on data of dictionaries of Russian and Hungarian languages, examples of fictional texts, live speech and not the least on the idioms. Theoretical importance lies in the following: 1) the research develops the theory of transitivity as we study transposition in two languages of different structures using comparative analysis of substantivized words and taking into account grammatical, semantic and functional aspects; 2) using the materials of two languages of different structures we discover the main conditions of systematic transposition and distinguish its universal and specific features; 3) for the first time the problem of transposition is studied on the basis of Russian and Hungarian from a theoretical point of view (on the example of transition of other parts of speech into nouns); 4) we develop the methodology of a comprehensive approach to study substantivation in Hungarian and Russian which can be used when describing this phenomenon in other languages of different structures.

Comparison helps to understand the grammatical systems of the compared languages, to learn their features. This is very important both in theoretical and practical aspects. Comparison makes it possible to determine similar and distinctive facts in the grammatical systems of the compared languages. When it comes to learning Russian, we need to identify what skills students have gained in the process of mastering their native language and what skills they need to master in order to learn a second language. The object of this analysis are inflected Russian language and an agglutinative language, the Ossetian language, the analysis is performed on a specific linguistic material. It should be noted that the Russian and Ossetian languages solve the same problem of forming communicative competence. The penetration of grammatical features of one language system into another is an inevitable process. The practical significance is to use the results of analyses in order to identify similarities and differences in the compared languages, which helps to predict and overcome language interference. This is important for improving communication skills,as well as for teaching languages and translating. Native and Russian languages as academic subjects solve the common task of forming and expanding communication capabilities, solving General educational problems of the school. Given the huge role of comparative language learning, we understand that this method is relevant for use in a research laboratory. Keep in mind that it is important to learn the practice of speech communication, not the theory of language. It should be noted that the intensification of methods of teaching a second language depends on the results of comparative research and the availability of the necessary linguistic base.

Children begin saying words sometime around their first birthday and continue to acquire a vocabulary of words until they begin to combine words toward the end of the second year. The study reported here is about the progress of a single child in this period of language development. Observations of the kinds of words she learned, their relative frequency and persistence, and their referential functions revealed developments in cognition—concepts and conceptual relations—that led to discovering linguistic categories and a simple sentence grammar. This research was one of the earliest if not the first study to use video recorded observations in language acquisition research. These observations could be viewed repeatedly to inform the analyses and the conclusions reported here. The carefully annotated transcriptions of the video record at 16+, 19+, 20+, and 22 months are presented in an Appendix.

Migration flows, which have significantly altered the demographic composition of the South of Russia over the last 25 years, are connected with the inflow of population with poor knowledge of the Russian language. One of the numerous ethnic groups that compactly settled in the Krasnogvardeysky District of the Republic of Adygea is the Kurds (more than 5,000 people). According to the census of the Russian Federation in 2010, every 13th Kurd in Adygea did not speak Russian. In a multiethnic environment, which is characteristic of the Republic of Adygea, the Russian language plays an important unifying role. It largely provides the political stability of the region, true friendship of peoples, and tolerance towards different cultures. Most materials were obtained by researchers in the course of three years of work with the Kurds of Adygea, numerous interviews with people of different ages and occupations, and due to studying the official documents of the administrations of rural settlements and observation of the behavior of students in school and ordinary people in everyday life. The authors used statistical, logical, and sociometric techniques and methods of interdisciplinary research considering the Kurdish ethnic group from the standpoint of sociology and cultural anthropology, as well as the method of participant observation, which allows stating changes that occur in the development of ethnic groups. The Kurds of Adygea demonstrate high conservation of their verbal native language, but least of all are interested in obtaining a good education, knowledge of the Russian language, which does not contribute to successful adaptation and creates certain social risks. Supporting the position of preservation and development of the native language, we are convinced that the knowledge of the Russian language as the state and world language is the norm for all Russians, and its rapid learning by settlers and their children will contribute to the successful future of the entire ethnic group. The value of the Russian language in contemporary Russia is not confined to the fact that it is a state language in modern Russia. In the country where more than hundred nations live, the Russian language is the language of interethnic communication and it is recognized by the UN as the world language. Any document of the UN among other seven world languages should be necessarily translated into Russian. The richness of the Russian language is supported by a large number of artistic, scientific and political literatures, which has received an international recognition. And today the Russian language remains the repository of national, historical, cultural, and spiritual heritage of not only the ethnic Russians, but also of all Russian nationals. DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n5s2p283

In semantic studies, there is a relationship between words and meaning. However, language learners often experience difficulties in assigning meaning to a word or sentence. The purpose of this research is to find out in depth about polysemy, the causes of its occurrence and examples of polysemy in verb and noun forms. This research uses descriptive qualitative method. Data collection techniques use library research using journals and books that are relevant to the discussion. Data analysis techniques use the relevant data collection stages, data reduction, grouping and selecting the necessary data, then providing temporary conclusions and verifying the data. The final stage is data collection and data presentation systematically (data display). The results of this study are polysemy is a relationship between words that are often used in several sentences or different contexts, or can be interpreted as a word that has more than one meaning. So that polysemy has a basic meaning and a derived meaning. The main causes of polysemy are; (1) dialect development (2) figurative language, (3) sharaf rules, (4) mixing of other languages and (5) language development. Polysemy can occur as nouns and verbs. Words that contain polysemy meaning can occur in noun and verb forms. An example of polysemy is the noun يد which has many meanings, including hands, help/power/strength, thief, power/will, guidance, giver, cash (cash) and virtue/kindness. The word وجه has many meanings including face, beginning/beginning, surrender, not feeling humiliated, right, actually, absolutely, substance, apostasy and equality. The word قام in the Qur'an has many meanings, including standing, implementing, replacing and held. The verb نصر when experiencing derivation has many meanings including helping, being Christian, helping each other, winning and asking for help.

1. When teaching the Russian language to Lithuanian students, it is important not only to develop their skills to correctly pronounce the sounds of Russian, but also to teach them correct writing in Russian.
 2. When teaching the literary pronunciation of the Russian language to Lithuanians, it is not advisable to teach them pronounce single separate sounds. Because every sound occupies a certain place in the language system, improvement of correct pronunciation of sounds must rely on comparison of phonetic and phonological systems of the Russian and Lithuanian languages.
 3. The method of comparison requires the learner’s conscious control of articulation unconventional to him/her and simultaneous refusal of pronunciation of sounds of own mother tongue when assimilating the sounds of a studied language.
 It is especially difficult to control such sounds and sound combinations of a learned language which at first seem to be similar to one’s mother tongue, but actually such “similarity” is only supposed.
 4. When teaching Lithuanians to pronounce vowels of the Russian language, attention should be firstly paid to the following aspects:
 a) General lax of the organs of speech
 b) Qualitative change of Russian vowel sounds in unstressed position and elongation of vowels depending on their position
 c) Qualitative promiscuity of vowels, the tendency of stressed Russian vowels to breaking, the influence of the phonetic environment on the quality of vowels (especially on the vowel e)
 5. When teaching Lithuanians to pronounce the consonants of the Russian language, the attention should be paid to assimilation of: a) the hushing ш and ж before u and pronunciation of e, also the pronunciation of ш and ж in combinations шё and жё; b) pronunciation of the soft consonants т' and б' , especially before vowels u and e; c) pronunciation of the consonant л before the soft consonants and pronunciation of the soft л‘ before hard consonants; d) pronunciation of the soft consonants at the end of the word, especially of the soft consonant ф‘; e) the character of consonant palatalization before vowels u and e; f ) assimilation of the pronunciation of long consonants, first of all, in morpheme junctions and a consonant with the subsequent compound.

The paper examines borrowed lexical units that entered the Russian language from Arabic, which were identified during the analysis of various dictionaries of foreign words. The reception of these lexemes into the Russian literary language and sub-standard vocabulary occurred in different time periods. Arabisms enriched the language system, gave names to lexemes belonging to different lexico-thematic groups. Penetrating into the Russian language, such borrowings have been fully or partially adapted, phonetically preserved or changed their Arabic pronunciation. The aim of the study is to identify the characteristic phonetic features that emerge during the reception of Arabisms. The scientific novelty of the study is determined by the fact that the correspondences and discrepancies between Russian and Arabic vowels and consonants of the lexemes entering the language remain little studied. It is the first time that the phonetic systems of the Russian and Arabic languages have been analysed involving the borrowed vocabulary unused in other studies. The results of the study have shown that unlike the Arabic words themselves, the Arabisms included in the Russian language system are characterised in some cases by the devoicing of consonant sounds, in others by the adaptation to the norms of the Russian phonetic system, in yet other cases by the preservation of the phonetic form of the lexeme.

The aim of the article is the analysis of the language of information technologies, the identification and description of its main features and its formation process. Lexical units of the language of information technologies and computer terms are studied on the basis of academic, technical and popular Russian and English scientific texts. Unlike the language of mass media, business, scientific, advertising, political, pedagogical, artistic, domestic and other discourses, the language of information technologies has not been sufficiently researched. There are practically no systematic and consistent works devoted to its formation. The relevance of the research topic is determined by the focus on the study of modern language tools that reflect the development of information and communication technologies for the effective implementation of professional communication in the context of globalization. The research employs general scientific methods of analysis, synthesis and generalization, as well as the method of electronic search in multimedia dictionaries and Internet resources. The article reveals the process of the formation of the language of information technologies: the emergence of the English neologisms and the adaptation of English-language borrowings in the Russian language. It also analyses the general use of modern computer terminology and its functioning in scientific discourse. The author concludes that the language in the field of information technology is constantly contributing to the lexical and phraseological systems of Russian and other languages, borrowing and accumulating English terms through replication, transliteration, transcription and other means of translation. In the process of the formation of the IT language, the appearance of numerous slang and jargon terms is observed.

PurposeNonword repetition tests (NWRT) can be useful tools together with other assessment procedures for diagnosing a developmental learning disorder in bilingual children. Concerning typically developing children, however, the link between NWRT performance and language development is still unclear. The present study contributes to this discussion by investigating the link between language-dependent NWRT performance, language development, and language exposure.MethodsA total of 20 simultaneously bilingual Russian–German children, aged 4–6 years, were tested with “The Russian language proficiency test for multilingual children (SRUK)” and “Patholinguistische Diagnostik bei Sprachentwicklungsstörungen (PDSS)” as well as language-specific nonwords for Russian and German.ResultsMost children scored within the mean range in SRUK. In PDSS they scored two standard deviations below the mean range in most of the subtests. NWRT in Russian significantly correlated with the NWRT in German and also positively correlated with both comprehension and production in Russian. In contrast, the German NWRT did not correlate with comprehension or with production in German. Moreover, the correlation between the German NWRT and the comprehension of grammatical structures in Russian was significant, and the correlations between the German NWRT and the two other Russian language development tests just failed to reach significance.ConclusionHigh scores in both the Russian and the German NWRT offer evidence that the ability to repeat language-specific nonwords does not differ depending on language exposure. The aim to distinguish between typical and atypical language development based on NWRT can be reached only when NWRT and all possible influencing factors in typically developed children are analyzed.